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OLMC Combinational Mode, Tri-State Buffers, The GAL16V8, Introduction to ABEL

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OLMC for GAL16V8, Tri-state Buffer and OLMC output pin >>
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
Lesson No. 20
IMPLEMENTING CONSTANT 0S AND 1S
The PLA can be programmed to give an output of constant 0 or 1. Figure 20.1. All the
four inputs and their complements are shown connected to the first AND gate. The product
term generated by the AND gate is 0. P1 = 0 . The P1 product term is connected to the input of
first OR gate. Thus the output of OR gate is 0. The inputs to the second AND gate are
disconnected, thus the product term generated by the AND gate is a 1. P2 = 1 . The P2 term is
connected to the input of the second OR gate, therefore the output of the second OR gate is a
1. No product term is connected to the input of the third OR gate, therefore the output of the
third OR gate is 0.
Figure 20.1
4 x 3 PLA Device programmed for 0, 1 and 0 output
Implementing Odd-Prime Number Function
The Odd-Prime Number generator can be implemented by programming the 4 x 3 PLA.
Due to the limitations of the PLA which only has six product term (six AND gates), only the first
six Odd-Prime numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13 can be detected. Additional two outputs are
programmed to detect Odd-Prime multiples of 15 and 39 respectively. The six product terms
represented by P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6 are minterms 1, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13. The first OR
gate sums the six minterms (product terms) to give an output of 1 when any one of the first six
Odd-Prime numbers is applied at the inputs I1, I2, I3 and I4 of the PLA respectively. The
second OR gate sums the minterms 1, 3 and 5. Thus the output of the second OR gate is a 1
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when any of the three minterms is applied at the PLA inputs. Similarly, the third OR gate sums
the minterms 1, 3 and 13 and the output is set to logic 1 when any one of the three inputs are
detected at the input of the PLA. Figure 20.2.
Figure 20.2
4 x 3 PLA Device programmed to Detect Odd-Prime Numbers
GAL Operation
The GAL has a reprogrammable AND gate array and a fixed OR array. GAL can be
reprogrammed as instead of fuses E2CMOS logic is used which can be programmed to
connect a column with a row. The E2CMOS logic at each column­row intersection is known as
a cell. Figure 20.3. The E2CMOS cell in the `on' state connects the column with the row and a
cell in the `off' state disconnects the column and row. Appropriate cells are programmed to the
`on' state to allow appropriate literals to be connected to the AND gates which generate
product terms. The simplified GAL structure shows the implementation of an SOP function.
Figure 20.4
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B
A
A
B
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
X
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
E2CMOS
Simplified E2CMOS array structure of GAL
Figure 20.3
A typical Gal has eight or more inputs to the reprogrammable AND array and 8 or more
input/outputs from its `Output Logic Macro Cells' OLMCs. The OLMCs can be programmed to
Combinational Logic or Registered Logic. Combinational Logic is used for combinational
circuits, where as Registered Logic is based on Sequential circuits. Figure 20.5
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B
A
A
B
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF
AB + AB + AB
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF
Figure 20.4
GAL implementation of an SOP function
Input 1
Input/
OLMC
Output 1
Input 2
E2CMOS
Input/
Programmable
OLMC
AND array
Output 2
Input/
Input n
OLMC
Output m
Figure 20.5
Block diagram of a GAL
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GALs are also available in a variety of configurations. GALs are identified by a prefix
GAL followed by a 2-digt number indicating the number of inputs which is followed by V
indicating variable output configuration followed by a number which indicates the number of
outputs. Figure 20.6
G A L 16 V 8
Generic array Logic
Eight Outputs
Variable output Configuration
Sixteen Inputs
Figure 20.6
Standard GAL Numbering
Programming of PLDs
PLDs are programmed with the help of computer which runs the programming
software. The computer is connected to a programmer socket in which the PLD is inserted for
programming. PLDs can also be programmed when they are installed on a circuit board.
The programming of a PLD device involves entering the logic function in the form of a
Boolean equation, truth table or a state diagram. Any errors during the entry process are
corrected. The software compiler processes the information in the input file and translates it
into a suitable format. The complier also minimizes the logic. The minimized logic is then
tested by using a set of hypothetical inputs known as test vectors. The testing verifies the
design of the logic circuit before committing it to the PLD. If any flaws are detected during the
testing process the design must be debugged and submitted for recompilation. Once the
design has been finalized a documentation file is produced along with a fuse map file which is
downloaded to the programmer which programs the PLD device inserted in the programmer
socket.
PLDs have In-System Programming (ISP) capability that allows the PLDs to be
programmed after they have been installed on a circuit board. A standard 4-wire interface is
used for programming the In-System PLD. ISP capability allows systems to be upgraded by
reprogramming the PLD.
The GAL22V10
The GAL22V10 is a popular GAL device having twelve inputs and ten inputs/outputs.
The device is available as low-voltage 3.3v version. It is also available as an ISP version. The
device has ten OLMCs that can be programmed to different output modes. The ten OLMCs
receive different number of inputs from the programmable AND gate array. Figure 20.7. Of the
ten OLMCs, two have eight inputs, two have ten inputs, two have twelve inputs, two have
fourteen and two have sixteen inputs. Each OLMC can be programmed for active-high, active-
low output or it can be programmed as an input.
The circuit diagram of an OLMC is shown in figure 20.8. The OLMC consists of a flip-
flop which is a sequential logic device which stores the information at the output of the OR
gate. Flip-flops will be discussed latter. The output and the complemented output of the flip-
flop are connected to the two inputs of the 4-to-1 MUX. The remaining two inputs of the MUX
are connected to the OR gate output and its complemented output. The output of the MUX is
connected to the output through a tri-state buffer. The output is also connected to the input of
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a 2-to-1 MUX. The other input of the 2-to-1 MUX is connected to the complemented output of
the flip-flop. The output of the 2-to-1 MUX and its complemented output is connected to the
input of the AND array. The select inputs S0 and S1 select the appropriate 4-to-1 MUX input to
be routed to the output or the input. The S1 select input of the 2-to-1 MUX is used to route the
appropriate input to the input of the AND array. The select bits S0 and S1 are programmed in a
dedicated group of cells in the array which are separate from the logic array cells.
Figure 20.7
Block diagram of the GAL22V10
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Figure 20.8
Circuit Diagram of OLMC
The four OLMC configurations are
·  Combination Mode with active-low output
·  Combinational Mode with active-high output
·  Registered Mode with active-low output
·  Registered Mode with active-high output
OLMC Combinational Mode
When the select inputs S0 and S1 are set to 0 and 1 respectively, the 4-to-1 MUX
selects the OR gate output and the output is active-low because of the inversion by the tri-
state buffer. When the select inputs are set to 1 and 1 respectively, the MUX selects the
complement of the OR gate output. The output of the OLMC is active-high due to double
inversion.
Tri-State Buffers
Tri-State Buffer is a NOT gate with a control line that disconnects the output from the
input. When the control line is high the buffer operates like a NOT gate and when the control
line is low the output is disconnected from the output and high impedance is seen at the
output. Tri-state buffers are used to disconnect the outputs of devices which are connected or
share a common output line. Figure 20.9
Figure 20.9a
Tri-State Buffer
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Figure 20.9b Tri-State Buffer operating as a NOT gate
Figure 20.9c Tri-State Buffer in High-Impedence State
Referring to the OLMC logic circuit. Figure 20.8. When the control input to the tri-state
buffer is set to low, the output of the buffer is set to high impedance disconnecting the OLMC
from the output pin. The output pin is used as an input pin.
The GAL22V10 Array
Input Lines
Reset to all OLMCs
44
44
44
44
44
44
Input/Output
OLMC
44
Product Term Lines
44
44
44
Input
Figure 20.10
Detailed Connection to the first OLMC of GAL22V10
The GAL22V10 has 22 inputs organized as 44 lines, one for each input and its
complement. Each AND gate has 44 inputs connected to the 44 input lines. Detailed
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connection of the first OLMC to the AND array is shown in figure 20.8. The vertical lines in
groups of four represent the inputs. Thus the first group of four vertical lines represents the
input from the GAL input pin and the input from the OLMC. The horizontal lines represent the
product terms. The first OLMC has ten input product terms. Out of the ten product terms, eight
product terms are connected to the OR gate in the first OLMC. Out of the remaining two
product terms, the first product term is used to control the tri-state buffer and the other is used
for reset in the Registered mode for all OLMCs.
Each OLMC ORs the product term to give a single sum of product term. The GAL has
ten such OLMCs therefore a total of ten Sum-of-Product terms can be implemented.
Programming the GAL22V10
Figure 20.11 shown the programmed GAL for the Boolean expression
X = ABCDEF + ABCDEF + ABCDEF + ABCDEF + ABCDEF + ABCDEF + ABCDEF
Input Lines
Reset to all OLMCs
44
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
Input/Output
OLMC
44
Product Term Lines
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x
x
x
x
x
44
44
Input
Figure 20.11
GAL22V10 programmed for Boolean Function
In the figure 20.9 the GAL has been programmed for a six variable Boolean function.
The six variables are connected at the six inputs of the GA device. The figure shows the
connection detail for the first variable A. The first group of four vertical lines represents the
variable A and its complement A . The remaining two lines in the group are not used receive
the un-complemented and complemented output from the OLMC. Similarly, the second group
of four vertical lines are connected to the second input pin of the GAL which is connected to a
signal representing variable B. The next four sets of four vertical lines represent input pins 3,
4, 5 and 6 which are connected to variables C, D, E and F. The Boolean expression that is
implemented has seven product terms. The first OLMC has eight input product terms, thus it
can be used to program the Boolean expression. The output of the first AND gate generates
the first product term of the Boolean expression. Similarly, the 2nd to 7th AND gates generate
the remaining six product terms respectively. The eight input OR gate (not shown) in the
OLMC block generates the sum of product terms. The last group of vertical lines is used to
control the tri-state buffer connected at the output of the OLMC. The diagram shows that it has
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been set to high to allow the tri-state buffer connect the OLMC output to the output pin of the
GAL.
The GAL16V8
This device has eight inputs and eight inputs/output. The GAL16V8 is designed to be
programmed in one of the three available modes to emulate most of the existing PALs, thus
replacing the PAL. The three modes in which PALs are programmed are
·  Simple
·  Complex
·  Registered
The simple and complex modes are associated with the Combinational Logic whereas the
Registered mode is associated with Sequential Logic.
Simple Mode
In the Simple Mode the OLMC is configured as dedicated active combinational outputs
or as dedicated inputs (limited to six). Three possible combinations of the Simple Mode are
·  Combinational Output. Figure 20.12a
·  Combinational Output with feedback to AND Array. Fig 20.12b
·  Dedicated input. Fig 20.12c
Figure 20.12a Combinational Output
In the Combinational Output the OLMC is configured to give an output which is either active-
low or active-high. The active-state of the output is determined by the XOR input. The tri-state
buffer control pin is set to logic high. The Combinational Output with feedback to AND array is
similar. The tri-state control pin is set to logic high, the XOR gate input determines the active-
state of the output. The signal at the output is also connected to the input of the AND array
through the buffer which provides inverting and non-inverting outputs.
Figure 20.12b Combinational Output with feedback to AND array
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Figure 20.12c Dedicated Input
In the Dedicated Input configuration the tri-state buffer is configured in the high
impedance state by setting the control pin of the tri-state buffer to low. Thus the output pin is
connected t an input signal which is passed to the input of the AND Array in its complemented
and un-complemented form by the buffer.
Complex Mode
In this mode the OLMCs can be configured in two ways. In the complex Mode the tri-
state control is formed by a logical expression, this leaves seven product terms that can be
used to form a sum-of product expression.
·  Combinational Output. Fig. 20.13
·  Combinational Input/Output. Fig. 20.14
Figure 20.13
Combinational Output
Figure 20.14
Combinational Input/Output
Introduction to ABEL
ABEL which is an acronym for Advanced Boolean Expression Language is a hardware
description language used for implementing logic designs using PLDs. ABEL is a device-
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independent language and can be used to program any type of PLD. ABEL is run on a
computer connected to a PLD programmer which programs the PLD.
ABEL provides three different text-based methods for describing and entering a logic
design. The three methods are
·  Boolean Equations
·  Truth Tables
·  State Diagrams
The Boolean Equations and the Truth Table method are used for Combinational Logic Circuits.
The State Diagram is used specifically for Sequential Logic circuits. The Boolean Equations
and the Truth Table method can also be used for describing and entering Sequential Logic
Circuits.
Boolean Operations
The NOT, AND, OR and XOR operations have special symbols in ABEL as shown in
table 20.1
Logic Operation
ABEL Symbol
NOT
!
AND
&
OR
#
XOR
$
Table 20.1
ABEL Symbols for logic operations
The standard Boolean notations in terms of ABEL notations are defined in table 20.2
Boolean Notation
ABEL Notation
!A
A
A.B
A&B
A +B
A#B
A B
A$B
Table 20.2
Boolean and equivalent ABEL Notations
1. Boolean Equations
One of the ABEL entry methods uses logic equations. In ABEL any letter or
combination of letters and numbers can be used to identify variables. ABEL however is case-
sensitive, thus variable `A' is treated separately from variable `a'. All ABEL equations must end
with `;'. Figure 20.15.
Boolean expression F = AB + AC + BD is written in ABEL as
F = A & !B # A & C # !B & !D;
Figure 20.15 ABEL representation of Boolean expression
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The operators !, &, # and $ have precedence in the order given in table 20.1
Multiple Inputs and Outputs
In some cases, multiple input and output variables can be grouped as a set to simplify
an equation. Fig 20.16. Thus D0, D1 and D2 input or output variables can be defined by a single
variable D using the ABEL notation D = [D0, D1, D2];
Consider the ABEL description of a 4-input 4-bit Multiplexer. Figure 20.1, Table 20.3
Select Inputs
Outputs
S1
S0
Y3
Y2
Y1
Y0
0
0
A3
A2
A1
A0
0
1
B3
B2
B1
B0
1
0
C3
C2
C1
C0
1
1
D3
D2
D1
D0
Table 20.3
Truth Table of 4-input 4-bit MUX
The Boolean expressions representing the operation of the MUX are
Y3 = A  3 S1 S  0 + B3 S1S  0 + C3S1 S  0 + D3S1S  0
Y2 = A  2 S1 S  0 + B  2 S1S  0 + C  2S1 S  0 + D  2S1S  0
Y1 = A  1 S1 S  0 + B1 S1S  0 + C1S1 S  0 + D1S1S  0
Y0 = A  0 S1 S  0 + B  0 S1S  0 + C  0S1 S  0 + D  0S1S  0
The ABEL notations representing the operation of the MUX are
Y3 = A3 & !S1 & !S0 # B3 & !S1 & S0 # C3 & S1 & !S0 # D3 & S1 & S0;
Y2 = A2 & !S1 & !S0 # B2 & !S1 & S0 # C2 & S1 & !S0 # D2 & S1 & S0;
Y1 = A1 & !S1 & !S0 # B1 & !S1 & S0 # C1 & S1 & !S0 # D1 & S1 & S0;
Y0 = A0 & !S1 & !S0 # B0 & !S1 & S0 # C0 & S1 & !S0 # D0 & S1 & S0;
The four ABEL notations can be represented by a single notation if variables A3, A2, A1 and
A0 are defined as a set A. Similarly, sets B, C and D can be defined.
A = [A3, A2, A1, A0];
B = [B3, B2, B1, B0];
C = [C3, C2, C1, C0];
D = [D3, D2, D1, D0];
Y = [Y3, Y2, Y1, Y0];
S = [S1, S0];
The ABEL notation representing the MUX is
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Y = (S = = 0) & A # (S = = 1) & B # (S = = 2) & C # (S = = 3) & D;
The `= =' is a relational operator
Figure 20.16 ABEL representation of multiple inputs and outputs
2. Truth Table
ABEL accepts a logical design described in the form of a Truth Table. Truth Tables are
sometimes more convenient in describing certain logic circuits. The ABEL Truth Table format
includes a header and the truth table entries.
TRUTH_TABLE
( [ A, B, C, D] [ X1, X2])
A, B, C and D are the inputs and XI and X2 are the outputs.
The truth table of an XOR gate is represented by the ABEL Truth Table notation. Figure 20.17
TRUTH_TABLE
( [A, B] [X])
[0, 0] [0];
[0, 1] [1];
[1, 0] [1];
[1, 1] [0];
Figure 20.17 Truth table of an XOR gate
The 2-bit Comparator logic circuit can be described in terms of the truth table using ABEL
notations. Fig 20.18a
TRUTH_TABLE
( [A1, A0, B1, B0] [G, E, L] )
[0, 0, 0, 0] [0, 1, 0];
[0, 0, 0, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 0, 1, 0] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 0, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 1, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 1, 0];
[0, 1, 1, 0] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 1, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[1, 0, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 0, 0, 1] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 0, 1, 0] [0, 1, 0];
[1, 0, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[1, 1, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 0, 1] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 1, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 1, 1] [0, 1, 0];
Figure 20.18a
Truth Table of a 2-bit Comparator
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The ABEL notation can be rewritten by defining a set. Fig 20.18b
INPUT = [A1, A0, B1, B0];
TRUTH_TABLE
( INPUT [G, E, L] )
0 [0, 1, 0];
1 [0, 0, 1];
2 [0, 0, 1];
3 [0, 0, 1];
4 [1, 0, 0];
5 [0, 1, 0];
6 [0, 0, 1];
7 [0, 0, 1];
8 [1, 0, 0];
9 [1, 0, 0];
10 [0, 1, 0];
11 [0, 0, 1];
12 [1, 0, 0];
13 [1, 0, 0];
14 [1, 0, 0];
15 [0, 1, 0];
Figure 20.18b
Truth Table of a 2-bit Comparator using a set
Test Vectors
Once the Logic circuit design has been entered its operation can be verified by using
`test vectors'. A `test vector' specifies the inputs and the corresponding outputs. The software
simulates the operation of the logic circuit by applying the test vectors and checking the
outputs.
Test vectors are essentially the same as Truth Tables. Thus the Test Vector for testing
the 2-bit comparator circuit is the same as its truth table. Figure 20.19
TEST_VECTORS
( [A1, A0, B1, B0] [G, E, L] )
[0, 0, 0, 0] [0, 1, 0];
[0, 0, 0, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 0, 1, 0] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 0, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 1, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[0, 1, 0, 1] [0, 1, 0];
[0, 1, 1, 0] [0, 0, 1];
[0, 1, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[1, 0, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
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[1, 0, 0, 1] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 0, 1, 0] [0, 1, 0];
[1, 0, 1, 1] [0, 0, 1];
[1, 1, 0, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 0, 1] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 1, 0] [1, 0, 0];
[1, 1, 1, 1] [0, 1, 0];
Figure 20.19a
Test Vector of a 2-bit Comparator
INPUT = [A1, A0, B1, B0];
TEST_VECTORS
( INPUT [G, E, L] )
0 [0, 1, 0];
1 [0, 0, 1];
2 [0, 0, 1];
3 [0, 0, 1];
4 [1, 0, 0];
5 [0, 1, 0];
6 [0, 0, 1];
7 [0, 0, 1];
8 [1, 0, 0];
9 [1, 0, 0];
10 [0, 1, 0];
11 [0, 0, 1];
12 [1, 0, 0];
13 [1, 0, 0];
14 [1, 0, 0];
15 [0, 1, 0];
Figure 20.19b
Test Vector of a 2-bit Comparator using a set
The ABEL Input File
When an Input (source) file is created in ABEL a module is created which has three
sections. The three sections are
1. Declarations
The declaration section generally includes the device declaration, pin declarations and
set declarations. Device declaration is used to specify the PLD device that is to be
programmed. The device is referred to as the target device.
Decoder device `P22V10';
The `Decoder' is a description which can be anything defined by the user
The `device' is a reserved keyword which can be in lower or upper case.
The `P22V10' is the device name. It should be in the format shown.
A0, A1, A2, A3, PIN 1, 2, 3, 4;
`PIN" is a keyword which can be in lower or upper case.
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Pin declaration defines the relationship between the variables and the corresponding pin
numbers of the PLD.
INPUT = [A1, A0, B1, B0];
`INPUT' defines a set made up of set elements A1, A0, B1 and B0. In subsequent ABEL
notations the set `INPUT' can be used instead of set variables.
2. Logic Descriptions
Logic descriptions include the three methods of describing a logic circuit. Two methods
the Boolean equation and the Truth Table method already have been discussed.
3. Test Vectors
The Test Vector format has been described. The Test vector description is used to
simulate the logic circuit and verify its operation.
The example describes the Input (source) file for a 2-bit Comparator logic circuit.
The Documentation file
After an input file is processed by ABEL a documentation file is generated which
provides a hardcopy of the final reduced equations and a device pin diagram.
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Table of Contents:
  1. AN OVERVIEW & NUMBER SYSTEMS
  2. Binary to Decimal to Binary conversion, Binary Arithmetic, 1’s & 2’s complement
  3. Range of Numbers and Overflow, Floating-Point, Hexadecimal Numbers
  4. Octal Numbers, Octal to Binary Decimal to Octal Conversion
  5. LOGIC GATES: AND Gate, OR Gate, NOT Gate, NAND Gate
  6. AND OR NAND XOR XNOR Gate Implementation and Applications
  7. DC Supply Voltage, TTL Logic Levels, Noise Margin, Power Dissipation
  8. Boolean Addition, Multiplication, Commutative Law, Associative Law, Distributive Law, Demorgan’s Theorems
  9. Simplification of Boolean Expression, Standard POS form, Minterms and Maxterms
  10. KARNAUGH MAP, Mapping a non-standard SOP Expression
  11. Converting between POS and SOP using the K-map
  12. COMPARATOR: Quine-McCluskey Simplification Method
  13. ODD-PRIME NUMBER DETECTOR, Combinational Circuit Implementation
  14. IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ODD-PARITY GENERATOR CIRCUIT
  15. BCD ADDER: 2-digit BCD Adder, A 4-bit Adder Subtracter Unit
  16. 16-BIT ALU, MSI 4-bit Comparator, Decoders
  17. BCD to 7-Segment Decoder, Decimal-to-BCD Encoder
  18. 2-INPUT 4-BIT MULTIPLEXER, 8, 16-Input Multiplexer, Logic Function Generator
  19. Applications of Demultiplexer, PROM, PLA, PAL, GAL
  20. OLMC Combinational Mode, Tri-State Buffers, The GAL16V8, Introduction to ABEL
  21. OLMC for GAL16V8, Tri-state Buffer and OLMC output pin
  22. Implementation of Quad MUX, Latches and Flip-Flops
  23. APPLICATION OF S-R LATCH, Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop, J-K Flip-flop
  24. Data Storage using D-flip-flop, Synchronizing Asynchronous inputs using D flip-flop
  25. Dual Positive-Edge triggered D flip-flop, J-K flip-flop, Master-Slave Flip-Flops
  26. THE 555 TIMER: Race Conditions, Asynchronous, Ripple Counters
  27. Down Counter with truncated sequence, 4-bit Synchronous Decade Counter
  28. Mod-n Synchronous Counter, Cascading Counters, Up-Down Counter
  29. Integrated Circuit Up Down Decade Counter Design and Applications
  30. DIGITAL CLOCK: Clocked Synchronous State Machines
  31. NEXT-STATE TABLE: Flip-flop Transition Table, Karnaugh Maps
  32. D FLIP-FLOP BASED IMPLEMENTATION
  33. Moore Machine State Diagram, Mealy Machine State Diagram, Karnaugh Maps
  34. SHIFT REGISTERS: Serial In/Shift Left,Right/Serial Out Operation
  35. APPLICATIONS OF SHIFT REGISTERS: Serial-to-Parallel Converter
  36. Elevator Control System: Elevator State Diagram, State Table, Input and Output Signals, Input Latches
  37. Traffic Signal Control System: Switching of Traffic Lights, Inputs and Outputs, State Machine
  38. Traffic Signal Control System: EQUATION DEFINITION
  39. Memory Organization, Capacity, Density, Signals and Basic Operations, Read, Write, Address, data Signals
  40. Memory Read, Write Cycle, Synchronous Burst SRAM, Dynamic RAM
  41. Burst, Distributed Refresh, Types of DRAMs, ROM Read-Only Memory, Mask ROM
  42. First In-First Out (FIFO) Memory
  43. LAST IN-FIRST OUT (LIFO) MEMORY
  44. THE LOGIC BLOCK: Analogue to Digital Conversion, Logic Element, Look-Up Table
  45. SUCCESSIVE –APPROXIMATION ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER