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METHODOLOGIES OF DATA COLLECTION:Observational method, Stability of Measures

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Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
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LESSON 02
METHODOLOGIES OF DATA COLLECTION
Psychologists use some of the following methods for research and data collection:
Experimental Method
The experimental research design is when a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and a
dependent variable of interest is to be clearly established, then all other variable that might contaminate or
confound the relationship have been tightly controlled. In other words, the possible effects of other
variables on the dependent variable have been accounted for in some way.
(a)
Independent Variable
An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way. That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable, there is an
increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in the dependent
variable is accounted for by the independent variable. To establish causal relationships, the
independent variable is manipulated.
(b)
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher's goal is
to understand and describe the depend variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. In other
words, it is the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor. Through the
analysis of the dependent variable (i.e., finding what variables influence it), it is possible to find
answers or solutions to the problem. For this purpose, the researcher will be interested in
quantifying and measuring the dependent variable, as well as the other variables that influence this
variable.
(c)
Intervening Variable
An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start
operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. The intervening
variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps
to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.
Control
When we postulate cause-and-effect relationships between two variables X and Y, it is possible that some
other factors, say A, might also influence the dependent variable Y. In such a case, it will not be possible to
determine the extent to which Y occurred only because of X, since we do not know how much of the total
variation of Y was caused by the presence of the other factor A. For instance a Human Resource
Development manager might arrange for special training to a set of newly recruited secretaries in creating
web pages, to prove to his boss that such training would cause them to function more effectively. However,
some of the new secretaries might function more effectively than others, mainly or partly because they have
had previous intermittent experienced with the web. In this case the manager cannot prove that the special
training alone caused greater effectiveness, since the previous intermittent experience of some secretaries
with the webs is a contamination factor. If the true effect of the training on learning is to be assessed, then
the learner's previous experience has to be controlled. This is what be mean when we say we have to
control the contamination factors.
Observational method
It is possible to gather data without asking questions of respondents. People can be observed in their
natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviours or other items of interest
can be noted and recorded.
Apart from the activities performed by the individuals under study, their movements, work habits, the
statements made and meetings conducted by them, their facial expressions of joy, anger, and other
emotions, and body language can be observed. Other environmental factors such as layout, work-flow
patterns, the closeness of the seating arrangement, and the like, can also be noted. This is called
observational method of collecting data.
Case design: study of a particular case
Case studies involve in-depth contextual analyses of similar situations in other organizations, where the
nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.
Hypothesis can be developed in case studies as well.
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Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
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Longitudinal methods
The researcher might want to study people or phenomenon at more than one point in time in order to
answer the research question. For instance, the researcher might want to study employees' behaviour before
an after a change in the top management, so as to know what effects change accomplished. Here, because
data are gathered at two different points in time, the study is carried longitudinally across a period of time.
Such studies are called longitudinal studies and the method as longitudinal methods.
Survey design; Study of aggregates
Survey design may be called the study of aggregates which means that the data are colleted through various
instruments such as questionnaires, interviews etc. to gather the information about the variables.
Cross sectional methods
A study can be done in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or
months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called one-shot or cross-sectional studies.
Concepts of Reliability and Validity
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures
consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the
reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measure
the concept and helps to assess the "goodness" of a measure
Stability of Measures
The ability of a measure to remain the same over time--despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the
state of the respondents themselves--is indicative of its stability and low vulnerability to changes in the
situation. This attests to its "goodness" because the concept is stably measured, no matter when it is done.
Two tests of stability are test-retest reliability and parallel-form reliability.
Test-retest Reliability
The reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion is called test-
retest reliability. That is, when a questionnaire containing some items that are supposed to measure a
concept is administered to a set of respondents now, and again to the same respondents, say several weeks
to 6monts later then the correlation between the scores obtained at the two different times from one and
the same sets of respondents is called test-retest coefficient. The higher it is the better the test-- retest
reliability, and consequently, the stability of the measure across time.
Parallel-Form Reliability
When responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated, we
have parallel-form reliability Both forms have similar items and the same response format, the only changes
being the wording and the order or sequence of the questions. What we try to establish here is the error
variability resulting from wording and ordering of the questions. If two such comparable forms are highly
correlated (say 8 and above), we may be fairly certain that the measures are reasonably reliable, with minimal
error variance caused by wording, order, or other factors. Examples (test-retest, split half.
Split-Half Reliability
It is another measure or reliability which measure the internal consistency of measures. The internal
consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the measure that tap the construct.
In other words, the items should "hang together as a set, " and be capable of independently measuring the
same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items.
Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument. The estimates would vary
depending on how the items in the measure are split into two halves. For example, if we split a question are
into two parts and administer them independently, we may be able to check if the answers to the first half
are consistent with those to the second.
Validity
It refers to the fact that when we ask a set of questions (i.e., develop a measuring instrument) with the hope
that we are tapping the concept, how can be we reasonably certain that we are indeed measuring the
concept we set out to do and not something else? This can be determined by applying certain validity tests.
Several types of validity tests are used to test the goodness of measures and writers use different terms to
denote them. However, validity tests may the grouped under the following headings:
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Content validity
Content validity ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set of items that tap the
concept. The more the scale items represent the domain or universe of the concept being measured, the
greater the content validity. To put it differently, content validity is a function of how well the dimensions
and elements of a concept have been delineated.
A panel of judges can attest to the content validity of the instrument. Kidder and Judd (1986) cite the
example where a test designed to measure degrees of speech impairment can be considered as having
validity if it is so evaluated by a group of expert judges (i.e., professional speech therapists).
Predictive/Criterion validity
It is established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict. This can
be done by establishing concurrent validity or predictive validity. Concurrent validity is established when the
scale discriminates individuals who are known to be different; that is, they should score differently on the
instrument.
Predictive validity indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to differentiate among individuals with
reference to a future criterion. For example, if an aptitude or ability test administered to employees at the
time of recruitment is to differentiate individuals on the basis of their future job performance, then those
who score low on the test should be poor performers and those with high scores good performers.
Construct validity
It testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the
test is designed. In other words, it shows relationship of characteristic with other observable constructs.
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHLOGY:Hawthorne Effect
  2. METHODOLOGIES OF DATA COLLECTION:Observational method, Stability of Measures
  3. GLOBALIZATION:Aspects of Globalization, Industrial Globalization
  4. DEFINING THE CULTURE:Key Components of Culture, Individualism
  5. WHAT IS DIVERSITY?:Recruitment and Retention, Organizational approaches
  6. ETHICS:Sexual Harassment, Pay and Promotion Discrimination, Employee Privacy
  7. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS:Flat Organization, Neoclassical Organization Theory
  8. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Academy Culture, Baseball Team Culture, Fortress Culture
  9. CHANGING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Move decisively, defuse resistance
  10. REWARD SYSTEMS: PAY, Methods of Pay, Individual incentive plan, New Pay Techniques
  11. REWARD SYSTEMS: RECOGNITION AND BENEFITS, Efficiency Wage Theory
  12. PERCEPTION:How They Work Together, Gestalt Laws of Grouping, Closure
  13. PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE:Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Stereotyping
  14. ATTRIBUTION:Locus of Control, Fundamental Attribution Error
  15. IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT:Impression Construction, Self-focused IM
  16. PERSONALITY:Classifying Personality Theories, Humanistic/Existential
  17. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT:Standardized, Basic Categories of Measures
  18. ATTITUDE:Emotional, Informational, Behavioural,Positive and Negative Affectivity
  19. JOB SATISFACTION:The work, Pay, Measurement of Job Satisfaction
  20. MOTIVATION:Extrinsic motive, Theories of work motivation, Safety needs
  21. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:Instrumentality, Stacy Adams’S Equity theory
  22. MOTIVATION ACROSS CULTURES:Meaning of Work, Role of Religion
  23. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:Criticisms of ‘Traditional’ Psychology, Optimism
  24. HOPE:Personality, Our goals, Satisfaction with important domains, Negative affect
  25. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:EI IS Related To Emotions and Intelligence
  26. SELF EFFICACY:Motivation, Perseverance, Thoughts, Sources of Self-Efficacy
  27. COMMUNICATION:Historical Background, Informal-Formal, Interpersonal Communication
  28. COMMUNICATION (Part II):Downward Communication, Stereotyping Problems
  29. DECISION MAKING:History, Personal Rationality, Social Model, Conceptual
  30. PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES:Expertise, Thinking skills
  31. JOB STRESS:Distress and Eustress, Burnout, General Adaptation Syndrome
  32. INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS:Role Ambiguity/ Role Conflict, Personal Control
  33. EFFECTS OF STRESS:Physical Effects, Behavioural Effects, Individual Strategies
  34. POWER AND POLITICS:Coercive Power, Legitimate Power, Referent Power
  35. POLITICS:Sources of Politics in Organizations, Final Word about Power
  36. GROUPS AND TEAMS:Why Groups Are Formed, Forming, Storming
  37. DYSFUNCTIONS OF GROUPS:Norm Violation, Group Think, Risky Shift
  38. JOB DESIGN:Job Rotation, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, Skill Variety
  39. JOB DESIGN:Engagement, Disengagement, Social Information Processing, Motivation
  40. LEARNING:Motor Learning, Verbal Learning, Behaviouristic Theories, Acquisition
  41. OBMOD:Applications of OBMOD, Correcting Group Dysfunctions
  42. LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Managers versus Leaders, Defining Leadership
  43. MODERN THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Transformational Leaders
  44. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Globalization and Leadership
  45. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Planning, Staffing