IMAGERY:Paivio’s Two-Dimensional Model, Developing Imagery Skills

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Sport Psychology(psy407)

Lesson 27

IMAGERY

Conceptual Models for Studying Imagery

Imagery has both a cognitive and a motivational function. The cognitive function of imagery is the use of

mental imagery to experience specific sport skills and to plan strategies in advance of competition. The

motivational function of imagery is the use of imagery to experience goal attainment, effective coping, and

arousal management. One function is primarily cognitive, while the other is primarily emotional.

Paivio's Two-Dimensional Model

Paivio conceptualized the practice of imagery to be either situation specific or general in nature. Thus,

Paivio's conceptual model of imagery is two dimensional in nature. As revised by Hall (1998) and measured

by the SIQ, Paivio's two dimensional model for imagery has five independent uses:

1. Motivational-Specific (MS)

In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself in a specific setting that is highly motivation. For

example, the athlete might herself making the winning basket in an important basketball game.

2. Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M)

In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines himself in a general sport situation exhibiting the ability to

remain focused. For example, the athlete might imagine himself thinking positive thoughts every time he

comes to bat during an important game.

3. Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A)

In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself in a general sport situation exhibiting the ability to

control anxiety. For example, the athlete might imagine using deep breathing to stay relaxed during a tennis

match.

4. Cognitive Specific (CS)

In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines herself correctly executing a specific sport skill during

competition. For example, the athlete might imagine chipping a ball onto the green in a golf tournament.

5. Cognitive General (CG)

In this type of imagery, the athlete imagines himself reviewing team defensive strategies in volleyball. For

example, he might imagine the team shifting the defensive formation to defend against a quick attack from

the middle.

The Four Ws of Imagery Use

According to Munroe, & others (2000), the four Ws of imagery use are where, when, why, and what. With

this in mind, the where of imagery use is during training or competition, with research suggesting that most

takes place during competition.

The when of imagery use refers to when imagery is used within training or competition. Relative to training,

imagery takes place during practice and outside of practice. Relative to competition, imagery takes place

Sport Psychology(psy407)

before, during, and after competition, with most of it taking place before competition in the form of mental

rehearsal.

The why of imagery use refers to the function of imagery. An athlete engages in imagery in order to invoke

either cognitive or motivational changes. The what of imagery use refers to the content or quality of the

images that the athlete has.

Developing Imagery Skills

Detailed practical suggestions for helping athletes to improve and develop imagery skills are provided by

Vealey and Greenleaf (2001). A sample six-step program to enhance imagery ability is provided below:

1. Find a quiet place where you will not be disturbed, assume a comfortable position, and relax

completely before beginning. Deep breathing and progressive relaxation is a suggested way to

achieve the relaxed state.

2. Practice imagery by visualizing a colored circle that fills the visual field initially and then shrink to a

dot and disappear. Make the circle turn a deep blue.

3. Create the image of a simple three-dimensional glass. Fill the glass with a colorful liquid; add ice

cubes and a straw. Write a descriptive caption underneath the image.

4. Select a variety of scenes and images and develop them with rich detail.

5. Imagine yourself in a sport setting of your choice. Project yourself into the image as if you were one

of the performers. Imagine yourself successfully performing the task in the scene.

6. End the session by breathing deeply, opening your eyes, and slowly adjusting to the external

environment.

Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention Programs Using Imagery and Relaxation

Research has demonstrated that individualized packaged intervention programs are more effective that

nonindividuallized programs in which participants select their own strategies. Athletes benefit most from

intervention strategies that are designed to fit their needs and are presented in a systematic and organized

fashion.

Three cognitive-behavioral intervention programs to be introduced in this section include Visual Motor

Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR), Stress Inoculation Training (SIT), and Stress Management Training (SMT).

Visual Motor Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR)

Visual motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) was developed by Suinn (1972, 1994) as an adaptation of Wolpe's

(1958) desensitization procedure for humans. His particular methods of training consisted of:

1. Relaxing the athlete's body by means of a brief version of Jacobson's progressive relaxation

techniques

2. Practicing imagery related to the demands of the athlete's sport

3. Using imagery to practice a specific skill in a lifelike stressful environment.

VMBR combines relaxation and imagery into one procedure. Numerous investigations have been reported

that demonstrate that VMBR is effective in enhancing athletic performance, as well as in reducing the

debilitating effects of overarousal and state anxiety.

Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)

Stress inoculation training (SIT) is a cognitive-behavioral programs developed by Meichenbaum (1977,

1985) that incorporates relaxation training, imagery, and other cognitive processes into a single plan.

Sport Psychology(psy407)

Threatening situations are presented through imagery, films, role playing, and real-life situations. For

example, if the fear of competition is stressful, the athlete is allowed to experience both imagined and real

competitive situations. As soon as the athlete is able to cope with a low level of stress, the situation is

changed, and a more stressful situation is presented, in this way, the athlete becomes inoculated against

progressively increased levels of stress. Eventually, the athlete's fear of competition is minimized to such a

degree that he can cope with it.

Research with SIT in athletic situations has demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing stress (Hamilton &

Leith, 1993)

Stress Management Training (SMT)

Stress management training (SMT) is a cognitive- behavioral intervention program developed by Smith

(1980) that incorporates relaxation training, imagery, and other cognitive processes. The athlete is taught to

understand the nature of stress generally, and to understand the source of her stress specifically.

The athlete learns and practices integrated coping responses which are reduced by the subject through the

application of cooping responses learned during skill acquisition.

Research supports the use of SMT for reducing stress and for enhancing athletic performance (Crocker,

1989)

References

Cox, H. Richard. (2002). Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications. (Fifth Edition). New York: McGraw-

Hill Companies

Lavallec. D., Kremer, J., Moran, A., & Williams. M. (2004) Sports Psychology: Contemporary Themes. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishers

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