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DC Supply Voltage, TTL Logic Levels, Noise Margin, Power Dissipation

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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
Lesson No. 07
DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. DC Supply Voltage
TTL based devices work with a dc supply of +5 Volts. TTL offers fast switching speed,
immunity from damage due to electrostatic discharges. Power consumption is higher than
CMOS. The TTL family has six different types of devices characterized by different power
dissipation and switching speeds. The series of TTL chips are:
·
74
Standard TTL
·
74S
Schottky TTL
·
74AS
Advanced Schottky TTL
·
74LS
Low-Power Schottky TTL
·
74ALS
Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL
·
74F
Fast TTL
The Standard, the Schottky, the Advanced Schottky, the Low-Power Schottky, the
Advanced Low-Power Schottky and the FAST TTL series are characterized by their switching
speed and power dissipation. The Standard TTL is the slowest and consumes more power
and the Advanced low power Schottky has the fastest switching speed and low power
requirements.
CMOS technology is the dominant technology today and used in large scale ICs and
microprocessors. CMOS technology is characterized by low power dissipation with slow
switching speeds. There are two categories of CMOS in terms of the dc supply voltage. The
3.3 v CMOS series is characterized by fast switching speeds and very low power dissipation
as compared to the 5 v CMOS series.
·
+5 V CMOS
o  74HC and 74HCT
High-Speed
o  74AC and 74ACT
Advanced CMOS
o  74AHC and 74AHCT
Advanced High Speed
·
3.3 V CMOS
o  74LV
Low voltage CMOS
o  74LVC
Low-voltage CMOS
o  74ALVC
Advanced Low voltage CMOS
2. Logic Levels and Noise Margin
The TTL and CMOS circuit operating at +5 or 3.3 Volts respectively are designed to
accept voltages in a certain range as logic 1 and 0. The input and output logic levels for CMOS
and TTL are shown in the figure 7.1. The VIH and VIL indicate the acceptable voltage ranges for
the input logic high and low respectively. Similarly VOH and VOL indicate the acceptable output
voltage range for logic high and low respectively.
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
Figure 7.1
Logic Levels for TTL and CMOS Series
a) TTL Logic Levels
At the input of any TTL logic gate logic high `1' or a logic low `0' signal is applied.
·  VIH is the input voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 2 to 5 volts.
·  VIH(min) is the minimum acceptable input range for a logic high signal. (2 volts)
·  VIL is the input voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 0.8 volts.
·  VIL(max) is the maximum acceptable input range for a logic low signal. (0.8 volts)
The output of any TTL logic gate can be at logic high `1' or logic low `0'.
·  VOH is the output voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 2.4 to 5 volts.
·  VOH(min) is the minimum acceptable output range for a logic high signal. (2.4 volts)
·  VOL is the output voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 0.4 volts.
·  VOL(max) is the maximum acceptable output range for a logic low signal. (0.4 volts)
b) CMOS 5 Volt series Logic Levels
At the input of any CMOS 5 volt series logic gate logic high `1' or a logic low `0' signal is
applied.
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
VIH is the input voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 3.5 to 5 volts.
·
VIH(min) is the minimum acceptable input range for a logic high signal. (3.5 volts)
·
VIL is the input voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 1.5 volts.
·
VIL(max) is the maximum acceptable input range for a logic low signal. (1.5 volts)
·
The output of any CMOS 5 volt series logic gate can be at logic high `1' or logic low `0'
·  VOH is the output voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 4.4 to 5 volts.
·  VOH(min) is the minimum acceptable output range for a logic high signal.(4.4 volts)
·  VOL is the output voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 0.33 volts.
·  VOL(max) is the maximum acceptable output range for a logic low signal. (0.33 volts)
c) CMOS 3.3 Volt series Logic Levels
At the input of any CMOS 3.3 volt series logic gate a logic high `1' or a logic low `0'
signal is applied.
·  VIH is the input voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 2 to 3.3 volts.
·  VIH(min) is the minimum acceptable input range for a logic high signal. (2 volts)
·  VIL is the input voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 0.8 volts.
·  VIL(max) is the maximum acceptable input range for a logic low signal. (0.8 volts)
The output of any CMOS 3.3 volt series logic gate can be at logic high `1' or logic low `0'
·  VOH is the output voltage range of Logic high signal with a range of 2.4 to 3.3 volts
·  VOH(min) is the minimum acceptable output range for a logic high signal. (2.4 volts).
·  VOL is the output voltage range of Logic low signal with a range of 0 to 0.4 volts.
·  VOL(max) is the maximum acceptable output range for a logic low signal. ( 0.4 volts).
The valid output voltages representing logic high and low are confined to certain
voltage ranges. For example, low-power 3.3 volt CMOS chips output logic high voltage ranges
between 2.4-3.3 volts and logic low ranges between 0-0.4 volts. Output voltages that are not
within the specified ranges can cause logic circuits to malfunction.
A low-power 3.3v CMOS AND gate will accept a voltage of 2.1 volts as a valid logic
high input. However, a voltage of 1.9 volts is unacceptable as an input between 0.8-2.0 volts
will give unpredictable results, therefore input voltages within this range is not allowed.
Wires in electronic circuits pick up noise from adjacent conductors. Noise is unwanted
voltage that is induced in the circuit due to high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. The
unwanted noise can affect the performance of a logic gate and the digital circuit.
Effect of Noise on the Operation of a CMOS AND Gate
A CMOS 5 volt series AND gate is shown. Figure 7.2. Input A of the AND gate is
permanently connected to logic high of +5 volts. Input B of the AND gate is connected to the
output of some other gate. The signal at input B of the AND gate can vary between logic 0 and
logic 1.
Consider that the input B is at logic High state with VIH = 4.2 volts which is within the
valid CMOS VIH voltage range of 5 to 3.5 volts. A voltage generated due to some external
noise (shown by the zigzag line) rides on the 4.2 volt signal. A sharp dip in the input voltage
due to the noise brings the input voltage down to 3 volts for a very short duration. The 3 volt
input is below the minimum input voltage limit of 3.5 volts for logic high input voltage and within
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
the not allowed voltage range. This dip in the voltage even for a short duration will result in an
output of logic low for a short interval of time.
H
A
VIN
B
VIH = 4.2 v
VIH(min) = 3.5 v
EfVec= ofvNoise on CMOS AND gate
f  IH t 3
Figure 7.2
Effect of Noise on the Operation of a CMOS AND Gate circuit
Two CMOS 5 volt series AND gates are connected together. Figure 7.3 The first AND
gate has both its inputs connected to logic high, therefore the output of the gate is guaranteed
to be logic high. The logic high voltage output of the first AND gate is assumed to be 4.6 volts
well within the valid VOH range of 5-4.4 volts. Assume the same noise signal (as described
earlier) is added to the output signal of the first AND gate.
H
H
H
VOH = 4.6 v
VOH(min) = 4.4 v
VNH = 0.9 v
VIH(min) = 3.5 v
Noise Margin High
Effect of Noise VIn  = 3.4OS AND gate circuit
oH CM v
Figure 7.3
The sharp dip due to noise brings the VOH voltage down to 3.4 volts with reference to
the VOH of 4.6 volts. 3.4 volts is lower than the VIH(min) of 3.5 volts required by the input of the
second AND gate, the circuit will thus malfunction.
Since VOH(min) is guaranteed to be at 4.4 volts therefore a noise signal being added to
4.4 volts can bring VOH voltage down to a minimum of 3.5 volts which is the acceptable
minimum range for VIH. Anything below 3.5 will cause the second gate to malfunction. Thus the
second AND gate can tolerate a maximum variation of 0.9 volts for its logic high input or has a
`Noise Margin' of 0.9 volts.
Noise Margin
Noise margin is a measure of the circuit's immunity to noise. The high-level and low-
level noise margins are represented by VNH and VNL respectively.
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
·
VNH = VOH(min) ­ VIH(min)
·
VNL = VIL(max) ­ VOL(max)
CMOS 5 volt series Noise Margins
·  VNH = VOH(min) ­ VIH(min) = 4.4 - 3.5 = 0.9 v
·  VNL = VIL(max) ­ VOL(max) = 1.5 ­ 0.33 = 1.17 v
CMOS 3.3 volt series Noise Margins
·  VNH = VOH(min) ­ VIH(min) = 2.4 ­ 2.0 = 0.4 v
·  VNL = VIL(max) ­ VOL(max) = 0.8 ­ 0.4 = 0.4 v
TTL 5 volt Noise Margins
·  VNH = VOH(min) ­ VIH(min) = 2.4 - 2.0 = 0.4 v
·  VNL = VIL(max) ­ VOL(max) = 0.8 ­ 0.4 = 0.4 v
The CMOS 5 volts and the 3.3 volts series can not be mixed.
For CMOS 5 volt series the high-level noise margin is 0.9 volts. That is, the logic high
output of the gate would never be below 4.4 volts. Even if it is below 4.4 volts due to some
external noise, the input will consider any voltage above 3.5 volts to be logic high. So CMOS 5
volt series gates can withstand noisy signals riding on logic high inputs up to a noise margin of
0.9 volts. Similarly, low-level noise margin is 1.17 volts (1.5-0.33).
The VNH high-level and VNL low-level noise margins for TTL 5 volt and CMOS 3.3 series
are 0.4 volts and 0.4 volts respectively. Therefore in noisy environments, CMOS 5 volt series
based digital system perform better.
3. Power Dissipation
Logic Gates and Logic circuits consume varying amount of power during their
operation. Ideally, logic gates and logic circuit should consume minimal power. Advantages of
low power consumption are circuits that can be run from batteries instead of mains power
supplies. Thus portable devices that run on batteries use Integrated circuits that have low
power dissipation. Secondly, low power consumption means less heat is dissipated by the
logic devices; this means that logic gates can be tightly packed to reduce the circuit size
without having to worry about dissipating the access heat generated by the logic devices.
Microprocessors for example generate considerable heat which has to be dissipated by
mounting small fans.
Generally, the Power dissipation of TTL devices remains constant throughout their
operation. CMOS device on the other hand dissipate varying amount power depending upon
the frequency of operation.
a) Power Dissipation of TTL Devices
When a TTL logic gate output is in a logic high state it draws out a current from the dc
power supply. It is said to be sourcing current. The high current is designated by ICCH, typical
value for ICCH is 1.5 mA when VCC = 5 V. When a TTL logic gate output is in a logic low state it
sinks a current designated by ICCL = 3.0 mA when VCC = 5 V. The figure 7.4 shows an AND
gate connected to output a logic high `1'. It thus draws a current ICCH from the voltage supply
VCC.
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
+5 v
+5 v +5 v
ICCH
8
12
11
13
10
9
14
1
2
3
4
5
6
7408
Four 2-Input AND Gate
Figure 7.4
Power dissipation of a TTL AND gate
When any one of the AND gate input is connected to low, the output becomes low and
it sinks current ICCL. An AND Gate which has one of its input connected to a clock which
continuously changes from logic high to low sets the AND gate output to high and low
respectively for every one half of the clock cycle. Thus the AND gate sources and sinks
currents ICCH and ICCL respectively.
The power dissipated by a gate is VCC x ICC. The power dissipated would be different
for a gate having a logic high output and logic low output. The average power dissipated is
determined, based on a 50% duty cycle, that is, the gate is pulsed and its output switches
between high and low for every one half of the cycle.
PD = VCC(ICCH + ICCL)/2
Power Dissipation in TTL circuits is constant over its range of operating frequencies.
For example, the power dissipation of a LS TTL gate is a constant 2.2 mW.
b) Power Dissipation of CMOS Devices
The transistors used in CMOS logic present a capacitive load instead of the resistive
load in TTL based logic. Each time a CMOS logic gate switches between low and high, current
has to be supplied to the capacitive load. The typical supply current is 5 mA for a duration of
20-30 nsec. As the frequency of operation increases, there would be more of these current
spikes occurring per second, thus the average current drawn from the voltage source
increases.
Power Dissipation in CMOS circuits is frequency dependent. It is extremely low under
static (dc) conditions and increases as the frequency increases. Total Dynamic Power
dissipation of a CMOS circuit is
PD = PT + PL
where PT is the internal power dissipation of the gate
PL is the external power dissipation due to the external capacitive load
PD = CPD.VDD2.f + CL.VDD2.f
PD = (CPD+ CL).VDD2.f
where CPD is the internal power dissipation capacitance
CL is the external load dissipation capacitance
VDD is the supply voltage
f is the transition frequency of the output signal
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
The power dissipation of a HCMOS gate is 2.75 μW under static conditions and 170 μW at
100 KHz.
4. Propagation Delay
When ever a signal passes through a gate it experiences a delay. That is, a signal
applied to the input of a gate does not result in an instantaneous response. The output of a
gate is delayed with respect to the input. The delay in the output is known as the Propagation
Delay.
The Propagation Delay of a gate limits the frequencies at which the gate can work.
Higher the Propagation Delay lower is the frequency at which the gate can operate. Smaller
the Propagation Delay higher the frequency at which the gate can operate. A Gate with a
Propagation Delay of 3 nsec is faster than a gate with a 10 nsec delay.
There are two Propagation Delay times specified for Logic Gates. Figure 7.5
·
tPHL The time between a specified reference point on the input pulse and a corresponding
reference point on the resulting output pulse, with the output changing from high level to
low level.
·
tPLH The time between a specified reference point on the input pulse and a corresponding
reference point on the resulting output pulse, with the output changing from low level to
high level.
Figure 7.5
Propagation delay of an NOT & AND gates
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
The output of the NOT gate changes from high to low after a delay of time specified by
tPHL after the input changes from low to high. The output of the NOT gate changes from low to
high after a delay of time specified by tPLH after the input changes from high to low. The delay
time is measured at the 50% transition mark.
The input B of the AND gate is permanently connected to logic high, where as input A
varies between High and Low. The output of the AND gate changes from low to high after a
delay of time specified by tPLH after the input changes from low to high. The output of the AND
gate changes from high to low after a delay of time specified by tPHL after the input changes
from high to low. The delay time is measured at the 50% transition mark. Generally, the tPLH
and tPHL propagation delay times are same.
The effect of Propagation Delay on the operation of a digital circuit can be explained
with the help of an example. Consider a Cricket Stadium, entry to the Cricket Stadium is
through three gates, each manned by a security guard who allows the spectator into the
stadium after checking the ticket. Assume that the security guards at Gates A, B and C take 1,
1.5 and 2 minutes respectively to check the ticket and allow the spectator into the stadium.
Assuming equal number of spectators queuing up at the three gates, the queue at gate C after
30 minutes is the longest as the guard at Gate C has the longest Propagation Delay.
5. Speed-Power Product (SPP)
An important parameter is the Speed-Power Product which is used as a measure of
performance of a logic circuit taking into account the propagation delay and the power
dissipation.
The SPP = tPPD expressed in Joules (J), the unit of energy. Lower the SP product better is the
performance.
6. Fan-Out and Loading
The fan-out of a logic gate is the maximum numbers of inputs of the same series in an
IC family that can be connected to a gate's output and still maintain the output voltage levels
within the specified limits. Fan-out parameter is associated with TTL technology. CMOS
circuits have very high impedance therefore fan-out of CMOS circuits is very high but depends
upon the frequency because of capacitance effects.
Fan-out is specified in terms of unit loads. A unit load for a logic gate equals one input
to a like circuit. Consider a 7400 NAND gate. The output current at logic high is IOH = 400 μA.
The input current at logic high is IIH = 40 μA. Thus a gate at logic high can source current to
another gate connected to its output.
Similarly, the output current at logic low is IOL = 16 mA. The input current at logic low is
IIL = 1.6 mA. Thus a gate output at logic low can sink current from another gate connected to
its output.
Unit Loads = IOH/IIH = IOL/IIL = 400 μA/40 μA = 16 mA/1.6 mA = 10
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
Figure 7.6
AND Gate Sourcing and Sinking Current
As more gates (Loads) are connected to the driving gate the loading on the driving
gate increases. The total current sourced by the driving gate increases. As the current
increases the internal voltage drop increases causing the output voltage VOH to decrease. If
excessive number of gates are connected the output voltage VOH drops below the VOH(min)
reducing the High-level noise margin, thus compromising the circuit operation. Also as the
source current increases the power dissipation increases. Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7
AND Gate Sourcing Current
The total sink current also increases with each load gate that is added. As the sink
current increases the internal voltage drop of the driving gate increases causing VOL to
increase. If excessive number of loads are connected, VOL exceeds VOL(max) and the Low noise
margin is reduced.
Figure 7.8
AND Gate Sinking Current
CMOS loading is different from TTL loading as the type of transistors used in CMOS
circuits presents a capacitive load to the driving gate. When the output of the driving gate is
high the input capacitance of the load gate is charging and when the output of the driver gate
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CS302 - Digital Logic & Design
is low the load gate is discharging. When more load gates are added the input capacitance
increases as input capacitances are being connected in parallel. With the increase in the
capacitance, charging and discharging time increases, reducing the maximum frequency at
which the gate can operate. Figure 7.9
Figure 7.9
CMOS AND Gate Sourcing and Sinking Current
The fan-out of a CMOS gate depends upon the maximum frequency of operation.
Fewer the load gates, greater the maximum frequency of operation.
Different TTL series are characterized by switching speed and power consumption as
shown in the table. Table 7.1
74
74S
74LS
74AS
74ALS
74F
Performance Rating
Propagation Delay (ns)
9
3
9.5
1.7
4
3
Power Dissipation (mW)
10
20
2
8
1.2
6
Speed-Power product (pJ)
90
60
19
13.6
4.8
18
Max. Clock Rate (MHz)
35
125
45
200
70
100
Fan-out (same series)
10
20
20
40
20
33
74HC
74AC
74AHC
Performance Rating
Propagation Delay (ns)
18
5
3.7
Power Dissipation (mW) Static
0.00275
0.0055
0.00275
Power Dissipation (mW) Dynamic 100KHz
0.0625
0.08
0.0625
Speed-Power product (pJ) at 100KHz
1.125
0.4
0.23
Max. Clock Rate (MHz)
50
160
170
74LV
74LVC
74ALVC
Performance Rating
Propagation Delay (ns)
9
4.3
3
Power Dissipation (mW) Static
0.0016
0.0008
0.0008
Max. Clock Rate (MHz)
90
100
150
Table 7.1
Operational Characteristics of TTL and CMOS families
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Table of Contents:
  1. AN OVERVIEW & NUMBER SYSTEMS
  2. Binary to Decimal to Binary conversion, Binary Arithmetic, 1’s & 2’s complement
  3. Range of Numbers and Overflow, Floating-Point, Hexadecimal Numbers
  4. Octal Numbers, Octal to Binary Decimal to Octal Conversion
  5. LOGIC GATES: AND Gate, OR Gate, NOT Gate, NAND Gate
  6. AND OR NAND XOR XNOR Gate Implementation and Applications
  7. DC Supply Voltage, TTL Logic Levels, Noise Margin, Power Dissipation
  8. Boolean Addition, Multiplication, Commutative Law, Associative Law, Distributive Law, Demorgan’s Theorems
  9. Simplification of Boolean Expression, Standard POS form, Minterms and Maxterms
  10. KARNAUGH MAP, Mapping a non-standard SOP Expression
  11. Converting between POS and SOP using the K-map
  12. COMPARATOR: Quine-McCluskey Simplification Method
  13. ODD-PRIME NUMBER DETECTOR, Combinational Circuit Implementation
  14. IMPLEMENTATION OF AN ODD-PARITY GENERATOR CIRCUIT
  15. BCD ADDER: 2-digit BCD Adder, A 4-bit Adder Subtracter Unit
  16. 16-BIT ALU, MSI 4-bit Comparator, Decoders
  17. BCD to 7-Segment Decoder, Decimal-to-BCD Encoder
  18. 2-INPUT 4-BIT MULTIPLEXER, 8, 16-Input Multiplexer, Logic Function Generator
  19. Applications of Demultiplexer, PROM, PLA, PAL, GAL
  20. OLMC Combinational Mode, Tri-State Buffers, The GAL16V8, Introduction to ABEL
  21. OLMC for GAL16V8, Tri-state Buffer and OLMC output pin
  22. Implementation of Quad MUX, Latches and Flip-Flops
  23. APPLICATION OF S-R LATCH, Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop, J-K Flip-flop
  24. Data Storage using D-flip-flop, Synchronizing Asynchronous inputs using D flip-flop
  25. Dual Positive-Edge triggered D flip-flop, J-K flip-flop, Master-Slave Flip-Flops
  26. THE 555 TIMER: Race Conditions, Asynchronous, Ripple Counters
  27. Down Counter with truncated sequence, 4-bit Synchronous Decade Counter
  28. Mod-n Synchronous Counter, Cascading Counters, Up-Down Counter
  29. Integrated Circuit Up Down Decade Counter Design and Applications
  30. DIGITAL CLOCK: Clocked Synchronous State Machines
  31. NEXT-STATE TABLE: Flip-flop Transition Table, Karnaugh Maps
  32. D FLIP-FLOP BASED IMPLEMENTATION
  33. Moore Machine State Diagram, Mealy Machine State Diagram, Karnaugh Maps
  34. SHIFT REGISTERS: Serial In/Shift Left,Right/Serial Out Operation
  35. APPLICATIONS OF SHIFT REGISTERS: Serial-to-Parallel Converter
  36. Elevator Control System: Elevator State Diagram, State Table, Input and Output Signals, Input Latches
  37. Traffic Signal Control System: Switching of Traffic Lights, Inputs and Outputs, State Machine
  38. Traffic Signal Control System: EQUATION DEFINITION
  39. Memory Organization, Capacity, Density, Signals and Basic Operations, Read, Write, Address, data Signals
  40. Memory Read, Write Cycle, Synchronous Burst SRAM, Dynamic RAM
  41. Burst, Distributed Refresh, Types of DRAMs, ROM Read-Only Memory, Mask ROM
  42. First In-First Out (FIFO) Memory
  43. LAST IN-FIRST OUT (LIFO) MEMORY
  44. THE LOGIC BLOCK: Analogue to Digital Conversion, Logic Element, Look-Up Table
  45. SUCCESSIVE –APPROXIMATION ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER