COGNITIVE APPROACH:Approach to Learning, Observational Learning

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Lesson 22

COGNITIVE APPROACH

(Also known as the cognitive Perspective or Model)

After having gone through the classical and operant conditioning approaches ask yourself:

· Did we learn, all that we know, as a result of mere association of stimulus and response; or was it

learnt just because we were reinforced for it?????Can learning take place as a result of some other

processes?

· Why does a soldier keep resisting the strong enemy without caring for his life even when he can

escape?

· Why would an artist donate his paintings to a charity school and not sell them in the market when

he could have earned hundreds of thousands?

All human intellectual activities and potentials, i.e. thinking, communicating, problem solving, and learning

require mental processes and knowledge. It is more than just stimulus-response association or reward and

punishment.

· In the 1970's much of psychology returned to the study of the mind. Cognitive psychology had a

similar interest. It studied memory, information processing, decision-making, etc.Cognitive

Approach to Learning

The approach that focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning.

· The approach that gives importance to cognition for understanding and explaining learning.

· Cognition is defined as "the mental processes" or the " faculty of knowing".Cognitive learning

approach has roots in the cognitive perspective.

· Cognition means "knowledge" or "the process of knowing".

· Cognitive approach emphasizes:

o Thoughts

o Feelings

o Thinking

o Values

o Expectations etc

· This theory gives same importance to both the internal states of the person as well as the

environmental events.

· Internal events are referred a s "Mediators" or "mediational processes"__ (that come in between

stimulus and response).

· Mediators are `conceptual' but they are defined physiologically rather than conceptually.

Elements of Cognitive Model

Internal processes = essential in

Mediators = Work in a

understanding Behavior

systematic and organized way

not in terms of trial and

Error

Emphasis of Cognitive Approach

· Cognitive approach uses the following as its focal point:

o Emotions

o Social behavior

o Behavior modification

· Cognitive approach includes the elements of psychology, linguistics, computer science and

physiology__ thus called a `hybrid science'.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

· The roots of cognitive learning can be traced in the work of Wolfgang Kohler, and E.C.Tolman.

Wolfgang Kohler Experiments on apes by German scientist Kohler, led to the discovery of the use of

insight by animals in problem solving; "learning by insight".

· Most famous of his experiments were conducted involving "Sultan", an ape.

· Series of experiments was conducted in which it had to reach a banana outside its cage using a

stick. Once it could solve this problem several times, it was provided with a stick that was not long

enough to reach the banana. However, outside the cage was placed a longer stick.

The ape unsuccessfully tried several times to reach the banana with the smaller stick, till it was finally

frustrated and retreated. Then all of a sudden the ape got up, got hold of the shorter stick and used it to

reach the longer stick; that stick was then used to reach the banana.

This phenomenon, Kohler thought, could be explained neither in terms of mechanical classical or

operant conditioning, nor trial and error.

The animal had exhibited a sudden change in behavior or the way it organized the problem

situation based upon "insight".

Both Kohler and Tolman played a vital role in laying the foundation of cognitive approach.

Tolman's Concept of Latent Learning

· Tolman talked about the `cognitive maps'; it is not necessary to have an association between

stimulus and response, a person can learn without showing any apparent response; in other words

learning and performance are not the same.

·The type of learning in which the organism does learn or acquire a particular behavior but does not readily

demonstrate it until reinforcement is provided; performance may not be the same as what one has actually

learnt.

Tolman's Series of Early Experiments:

· Tolman (1886-1959) and colleagues conducted experiments that demonstrated that only

mechanical association between the stimulus and response can not explain just every type

of learning. In order to demonstrate this experiment on maze learning was conducted

using rats that were divided into three groups.

· Group- 1

For 17 days the rats were allowed wandering around the maze once a day without being rewarded; making

many errors they took longer in reaching the end.

· Group- 2

Always given food at reaching the end; learned to run faster to the end and food box; made fewer errors.

· Group- 3

For the first 10 days treated like group-1, and then given food; running time reduced. Errors declined;

performance immediately matched that of group-1.

Conclusion: Cognitive Map

·The rats who were not rewarded had learnt the layout of the maze in their initial explorations, but

demonstrated their ability/skill only after reinforcement was provided; immediately after they stared getting

food they were almost as good as group-1.

·They had developed a cognitive map of the maze that was readily available in their mind, that was used

only when reinforcement was received.

Cognitive Map

·It is a mental representation of space, locations, and directions; a mental representation of learned

relationships among stimuli.

What function do spatial cognitive maps perform???

In case of humans and animals:

·Spatial memory is used for identifying and recognizing the features of their environment e.g. cats find their

way back home.

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

·Spatial memory is used for finding important goal objects in their environment.

·Spatial memory is used for planning route through an environment.

Use of Cognitive Maps by Animals

·Birds coming back to the same place and point after a season

·Pigeons carrying messages

·Cats coming back home even after a number of days have passed

Use of cognitive maps by humans

·Cognitive maps of surroundings, primarily based on particular landmarks are developed by people too.

·In their initial encounter with a new environment, they develop cognitive maps based upon specific paths.

·As the familiarity with the environment increase, "abstract cognitive maps" are developed i.e., overall

conception of environment is developed.

·Used by interior designers for planning space and arrangements in the absence of any actual objects.

Observational Learning

Ask Yourself

·Will people be behaving the same way as they do now, if they had never seen another human being?

·How do toddlers learn to wear shoes?

·Why do small girls like to wear lipsticks?

·How does one reach for the ignition in a car when trying to drive the very first time on his own?

·How do many youngsters start smoking?

·Why do people dress up and talk like famous actors?

Defining observational Learning

Imitation is an advanced animal behavior whereby an individual observes another's behavior and replicates

it.

·Observational learning refers to learning through observation of others' behavior; or as a result of

modeling

·According to Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major portion of our learning is based upon learning by

observation.

·It is the main component of social-learning theory in which a person makes changes in his own behavior

by watching/or imitating others i.e., a model/ a super star/favorite personality or a cartoon character.

·Effective in acquiring skills, attitudes, and beliefs simply by watching other

Observational learning may lead to learning negative as well as positive behaviors!!!!

· Bandura (1965) and others have demonstrated that we learn from observing models but we don't

necessarily copy them. In an early study, children watched a film of an adult hitting and kicking a

large punching bag type of doll. Some of the children saw the adult rewarded for the aggressiveness,

others saw the adult punished, and still others saw no rewards or punishment afterwards.

When placed in a similar situation as the adult with the doll, the children were more

aggressive themselves if they had seen an adult rewarded for being aggressive. If they had

seen the adult punished, they were less aggressive, even though they could imitate the

adult perfectly. They had learned behavior by observing and learned to monitor and

control their behavior considering if it might lead to rewards or punishment. All parents

observe this phenomenon in their growing children.

Modeling has also been used as a form of psychological intervention or treatment. Children with a fear of

dogs (Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove, 1967) or snakes (Bandura, Blanchard, and Ritter, 1969) were shown a

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

model that was not afraid and approached and handled the animal. The children learned to be less afraid.

Although observing an effective model in a film is helpful, seeing a live model works better. Even more

effective is watching a live model first and then participating by approaching and safely handling the feared

animal.

Steps in Observational Learning

·The most critical features of another person's (model's) behavior are paid attention to and perceived.

·The behavior is remembered; stored in memory.

·The action is reproduced.

·The person is motivated to learn and practice the behavior; successes are reinforced and failures punished.

When is observational learning the best approach to learning???

·In learning those skills where shaping is not appropriate, trial and error impossible and classical

conditioning irrelevant, for example:

oFlying airplanes as a pilot

oPerforming surgery

Who is a good model???

·The one who is rewarded for his behavior

·Those punished for their behavior will not usually be copied.

·Socially significant models (e.g. actors or super models used in advertisements)

·Successful people

·Glamorous people

·Good communicators

Applications of Observational Learning in Real Life Situations

Observational learning can be, and has been, used successfully for:

·Overcoming fears in children

·Assertiveness training

·Treating fear of medical treatment and surgery

·Learning sports and athletics

·Learning new skills, like swimming

·Classroom situation: good performers and high achievers are rewarded so that they act as models for other

children

The following behaviors are also learned through observation of others performing the same act:

· Learning gender roles

· Adopting new fashions

· Starting smoking

· Drug abuse

· Drinking alcohol

· Violence and aggression learnt and displayed by children

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Introduction to Psychology PSY101

Comparison of Different Learning Approaches

Aspect

Behaviourist

Cognitivist

Humanist

Social and

situational

Learning

Thorndike, Pavlov,

Koffka, Kohler,

Bandura, Lave and

Maslow, Rogers

theorists

Watson, Guthrie,

Lewin, Piaget,

Wenger, Salomon

Hull, Tolman,

Ausubel, Bruner,

Skinner

Gagne

View of the

Change in

Internal mental

A personal act to

Interaction

learning process

behaviour

process (including

fulfil potential.

/observation in

insight, information

social contexts.

processing,

Movement from

memory,

the periphery to the

perception

centre of a

community of

practice

Locus of learning

Stimuli in external

Internal cognitive

Affective and

Learning is in

environment

structuring

cognitive needs

relationship

between people

and environment.

Purpose in

Produce

Develop capacity

Become self-

Full participation in

education

behavioural change

and skills to learn

actualized,

communities of

in desired direction

better

autonomous

practice and

utilization of

resources

Educator's role

Arranges

Structures content

Facilitates

Works to establish

environment to

of learning activity

development of the communities of

elicit desired

whole person

practice in which

response

conversation and

participation can

occur.

Manifestations in

Behavioural

Cognitive

Andragogy

Socialization

adult learning

objectives

development

Self-directed

Social participation

Competency -based

Intelligence,

learning

Associationalism

education

learning and

Conversation

Skill development

memory as

and training

function of age

Learning how to

learn

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