THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II):Empirical problems, Conceptual problems

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Theories of Communication MCM 511

LESSON 03

THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II)

Theory is more then a cataloging of the social world: it is an attempt to provide an abstract

understanding or explanation of the social world. Theories are a set of logically interrelated

propositions, presented in a systematic way which describe and explain social phenomena. They are

logically constructed statements that summarize and organize knowledge in a particular area and are

open to testing, reformulation modification and revision.

Functions of Theories

Bernard Cohen in 1994 drawing from the work of Larry Lauden in 1982 proposes that the central

function of theory is to solve problems. Lauden notes that:

"The first and essential acid test for any theory is whether it provides acceptable answers to interesting

questions."

Theories can be used to address a number of type's problems. According to Lauden it can begin with

three types of problems:

Empirical problems

Conceptual problems

Practical problems

Empirical problems

An empirical problem is "any thing about the world which strikes us as odd or otherwise in need of

explanation".

Conceptual problems

Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be clarified

Practical problems

The utility in solving practical problems has historically played major role in both assessing and

promoting theory construction. Within the field of communication, the role of theory in dealing with

practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often confront applied

issues such as how to improve the provisions of health care how to enhance the effectiveness of problem

solving organizational groups.

Assessing the quality of theory

So in assessing the quality of theory three related questions should be answered:

1. Does the theory solve the problem, regardless of whether that problem is empirical conceptual or

practical?

2. Does the solution compare favorably with alternative solutions?

3. Is the solution progressive in that it represents an improvement over its predecessor and opens up new

avenues for solving new problems?

Models in communication research

What are models?

Models are a theoretical and simplified representation of the real world. A model is not an explanatory

device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused with

theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is so close.

Theories of Communication MCM 511

Definitions

"A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. A model seeks to

show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between these elements".

(McQuail).

Deutsch in 1952 pointed out that:

1. Model is a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set of

relevant points in an existing structure or process.

2. Models are indispensable for understanding the more complex processes.

3. This is a form of selection and abstraction.

So a successful pictorial model offers three major advantages:

1. They organize concepts

2. They explain processes and

3. They predict outcomes

They organize concepts

Models organize concepts by ordering and relating systems to each other and by providing us with

images of wholes that we might not otherwise perceive.

A model gives a general picture of a range of different particular circumstances.

They explain processes

Models explain processes by providing in simplified way information which would otherwise be

complicated or ambiguous. This gives a model a heuristic function, since it can guide the student or

researcher to key points of a process or system

They predict outcomes or the course of events

Models can at least be a basis for assigning probabilities to various alternative outcomes, and hence for

formulating hypotheses in research.

KINDS OF MODELS

Structural model

Functional models

Structural model

Some models claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon.

In this sense, a diagram of the components of a radio set or diagram of a digestive system etc, could be

described as "structural'.

Functional models

Functional models, describe systems in terms of energy, forces and their direction, the relations between

parts and the influence of one part on another. The communication models fall into this category, simply

all communication is in some degree dynamic and involves some elements of process or change

Before we study the communication models lets first look into the most general terms what

communication implies. It implies

Sender (encoder)

A channel

A message

A receiver (decoder)

A receiver between sender and receiver

An effect

A context in which communication occurs and

Theories of Communication MCM 511

A range of things to which messages refer

Feedback any process by which the communicator obtains information about whether

and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message

Three different ways of viewing communication processes

1. Linear model

2. Interactive model

3. Transactional

LINEAR MODELS

Linear models are based on the principles of stimulus-response psychology, in which a receiver is

affected (response) by a message (stimulus) that emanates from a communication source. These models

depict the communication process as a series of progressive, linear steps in the transmission of ideas

from one person to another.

Lasswell formula

Who says (communicator)

What to (message)

In which channel (channel)

To whom (receiver)

With what effect (effect)

Lasswell formula corresponding with communication research

Who says (control studies)

What to (content analysis)

In which channel (media analysis)

To whom (audience analysis)

With what effect (effect analysis)

Boaddock's extension of the Lasswell formula

Who Says

What to

In which channel

To whom

Under what circumstances?

For what purpose?

With what effect)

Shannon-Weaver model

One of the first linear models of communication, known as the Shannon-Weaver model, (developed in

1940's) described the process of telecommunication.

They developed a model that depicts a message emanating from an information source, which becomes

a signal after passing through a transmitter, depending upon the amount of noise or interference present,

the signal passes through to a receiver, where it is decoded as a message.

Westley - MacLean model

This model (originated in 1950s) differs from the Shannon-Weaver model in that they include

mechanism for FEEDBACK or return flow of information from a receiver to the original source, and

gate keeping, a mechanism (usually a person) that has the power to control information and even

prevent it from reaching a destination .

The gatekeeper was thought to be an important new dimension of communication models to many in

mass communication, because it serves as an analog for editors ,e.g. who control and select the

messages that ultimately get to readers of newspapers or viewers of news programs.

Theories of Communication MCM 511

INTERACTIVE MODELS

This model which depicts communication as an interactive process originated in the 1950's.The Osgood

and Schramm interactive model emphasizes the sharing of information between communicator, who

gives and receive information interactively.

Osgood and Schramm interactive model

The circular model describes communication as interactive and interpretive, with communicators almost

simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Each person alternates in his or her role as encoder

interpreter and decoder of shared messages.

TRANSACTIONAL MODELS

This model takes into consideration the character of the message and the psychological orientation of

the audience member as factors influencing the power of media effects.

OTA transactional model

The OTA (US office of technology assessment) transactional model separates communication into

three distinct processes:

1. Message formulation

2. Message interpretation

3. Message exchange

And emphasizes the interdependencies of the processes.

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