ZeePedia

Memory:Representation of knowledge, PQ4R Method, Elaboration

<< MEMORY:Representation of knowledge (continued), Memory for stories
Memory:Study Methods, Analyze Story Structure, Use Multiple Modalities >>
img
Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
Lecture 39
Memory
Representation of knowledge
Applications for studying
Numerous manipulations to improve subjects' memory in recalling a long list of items are given
below. So the applications of studying are given,
Method of Loci
PQ4R Method
Elaborate
Spacing Effect
Encoding variability
1. Method of Loci
A classical mnemonic technique has its effect by promoting good organization in recall situations.
This technique, used extensively in ancient times when speeches were given without written
notes, is still used today. Loci are the plural of locus, it means location. Basically, to use the
method of loci the individual imagines a fixed path through a familiar area with some fixed
locations along the path.
2. PQ4R Method
This is also an important technique. The PQ4R method drives its name from the six phases it
advocates for studying a chapter in a textbook:
Preview
Survey the chapter to determine the general topics being discussed. Identify the sections to be
read as units. Apply the next four steps to each section. For example, when starting a new
book, skim it quickly. Look at some pictures or diagrams. Study the table of contents. When
starting a new chapter, look at different headings. Create a rough idea of what this chapter is
about.
Questions
Make up questions about the section. Often, transforming section headings, simply, results in
adequate questions. For example, make questions based on headings. Icon: what is an icon?
How is it defined? Attention: How does attention link with the Icon? How is Echo different from
Icon? How is it similar?
Read
Read the section carefully, trying to answer the questions you have made up about it. You can
always modify your questions in the light of what you have read. Interact with the text as you
read it. Make it an active exercise not a passive one.
Reflect
Reflect on the text as you are reading it trying to understand it, to think of examples and to
relate the material to prior knowledge. How is it going to help? What are the possible
applications of the material?
Recite
After finishing a section, try to recall the information contained in it. Try answering the questions
you made up for the section. If you can not recall enough, reread the portions you had trouble
remembering. Recall the text as you try to answer your own questions mentally. Notice any part
114
img
Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
you remember better than others. Have another look at the material not yet learned. Try and
recall it.
Review
After you have finished the chapter, go through it mentally, recalling its points. Again try
answering the questions you made up. Have another look at the text. See if all the questions
have been answered. See if there is additional important information to be remembered. Examine
your notes and compare these with the text.
One of the reasons for the success of this kind of this technique is that all the passes through the
material serve as spaced study the way the material is organized. So, organization leads to good
memory, especially on free type tests.
The central feature of the PQ4R technique however is the question generation and question-
answering characteristics. There is reason to suspect that the most important aspect of this
feature is that it encourages deeper or more elaborative processing of the text the material.
3. Elaboration
This method is similar to the PQ4R method. After studying the material through PQ4R method
then elaborate it. Then try to making diagrams and label them according to the materials. Then
you can also make mental maps. Mental maps help the meaning clear. It also tells us about the
links between the materials. Then students can use PQ4R method. You can also try and explain
it to your little brother or sister. During explaining the material to your little brother and sister you
will become clearer. You can also explain the material to your other friends of other fields. Then
you write a paragraph on how you feel about the material.
The research reviewed indicates that the elaborative conception is more accurate. Subjects
elaborate the information they study with the following:
1. Connections to prior knowledge
2. Imaging's and inferences about the material
3. Features from the current context
The evidence indicates that this process of elaboration leads to improved memory in the following
ways:
1. It increases the redundancy of interconnections among the-to be remembered
information.
2. It imposes an organization on the information that can be used to guide the retrieval
process.
3. It can increase the number of contextual elements that will overlap between study and
test.
4 . Encoding variability
This is a way in which context influences memory. It is referred encoding effects because the
contexts affecting what is encoded into the memory trace that records the event. Learn the same
material in different rooms. Try and change places, positions and contexts. Research evidence
points to need for variety of situation.
5. Spacing effect
Give as much a gap you can between reading and re-reading. This does not mean do not review
immediately. First review material soon. Then re-read material closer to exam. Give as much a
gap you can between reading and re-reading. This does not mean do not review immediately.
First review material soon. Then, re-read the material closer to the exam.
The spacing effect is an extremely robust and powerful phenomenon, and it has been repeatedly
shown with many kinds of material. Spacing effects have been demonstrated in free recall, in
115
img
Cognitive Psychology ­ PSY 504
VU
cued recall of paired associates, in the recall of sentences, and in the recall of text material. It is
important to note that these spacing results do generalize to textbook materials. Also the effect of
spaced study can be very long-lasting.
Speed Reading
Speed Reading can help you read fast. But material is not retained well.
But if you are trying to learn new material you are reading stories then it's OK.But then again, its
no way to appreciate poetry or literature. It is like that you are drinking tea very fast and burn
your tong. So it is not accurate. We must avoid it.
116
Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION:Historical Background
  2. THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
  3. COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY:Brains of Dead People, The Neuron
  4. COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (CONTINUED):The Eye, The visual pathway
  5. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (CONTINUED):Hubel & Wiesel, Sensory Memory
  6. VISUAL SENSORY MEMORY EXPERIMENTS (CONTINUED):Psychological Time
  7. ATTENTION:Single-mindedness, In Shadowing Paradigm, Attention and meaning
  8. ATTENTION (continued):Implications, Treisman’s Model, Norman’s Model
  9. ATTENTION (continued):Capacity Models, Arousal, Multimode Theory
  10. ATTENTION:Subsidiary Task, Capacity Theory, Reaction Time & Accuracy, Implications
  11. RECAP OF LAST LESSONS:AUTOMATICITY, Automatic Processing
  12. AUTOMATICITY (continued):Experiment, Implications, Task interference
  13. AUTOMATICITY (continued):Predicting flight performance, Thought suppression
  14. PATTERN RECOGNITION:Template Matching Models, Human flexibility
  15. PATTERN RECOGNITION:Implications, Phonemes, Voicing, Place of articulation
  16. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Adaptation paradigm
  17. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Gestalt Theory of Perception
  18. PATTERN RECOGNITION (continued):Queen Elizabeth’s vase, Palmer (1977)
  19. OBJECT PERCEPTION (continued):Segmentation, Recognition of object
  20. ATTENTION & PATTERN RECOGNITION:Word Superiority Effect
  21. PATTERN RECOGNITION (CONTINUED):Neural Networks, Patterns of connections
  22. PATTERN RECOGNITION (CONTINUED):Effects of Sentence Context
  23. MEMORY:Short Term Working Memory, Atkinson & Shiffrin Model
  24. MEMORY:Rate of forgetting, Size of memory set
  25. Memory:Activation in a network, Magic number 7, Chunking
  26. Memory:Chunking, Individual differences in chunking
  27. MEMORY:THE NATURE OF FORGETTING, Release from PI, Central Executive
  28. Memory:Atkinson & Shiffrin Model, Long Term Memory, Different kinds of LTM
  29. Memory:Spread of Activation, Associative Priming, Implications, More Priming
  30. Memory:Interference, The Critical Assumption, Limited capacity
  31. Memory:Interference, Historical Memories, Recall versus Recognition
  32. Memory:Are forgotten memories lost forever?
  33. Memory:Recognition of lost memories, Representation of knowledge
  34. Memory:Benefits of Categorization, Levels of Categories
  35. Memory:Prototype, Rosch and Colleagues, Experiments of Stephen Read
  36. Memory:Schema Theory, A European Solution, Generalization hierarchies
  37. Memory:Superset Schemas, Part hierarchy, Slots Have More Schemas
  38. MEMORY:Representation of knowledge (continued), Memory for stories
  39. Memory:Representation of knowledge, PQ4R Method, Elaboration
  40. Memory:Study Methods, Analyze Story Structure, Use Multiple Modalities
  41. Memory:Mental Imagery, More evidence, Kosslyn yet again, Image Comparison
  42. Mental Imagery:Eidetic Imagery, Eidetic Psychotherapy, Hot and cold imagery
  43. Language and thought:Productivity & Regularity, Linguistic Intuition
  44. Cognitive development:Assimilation, Accommodation, Stage Theory
  45. Cognitive Development:Gender Identity, Learning Mathematics, Sensory Memory