MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS:Conceptualization

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Research Methods STA630

Lesson 15

MEASUREMENT OF CONCEPTS

In everyday usage, measurement occurs when an established yardstick verifies the height, weight, or

another feature of a physical object. How well you like a song, a painting, or the personality of a friend

is also measurement. In a dictionary sense, to measure is to discover the extent, dimensions, quantity, or

capacity of something, especially by comparison with a standard. We measure casually in daily life, but

in research the requirements for measurement are rigorous.

Certain things lend themselves to easy measurement through the use of appropriate instruments, as for

example, physiological phenomena pertaining to human beings such as blood pressure, pulse rates, and

body temperature, as well as certain physical attributes such as height and weight. But when we get into

the realm of people's subjective feelings, attitudes, ideology, deviance, and perceptions, the

measurement of these factors or variables becomes difficult. Like the natural scientist who invents

indirect measures of the "invisible" objects and forces of the physical world (magnetism the force that

moves a metal toward the magnet), the social researcher devises measures for difficult- to-observe

aspects of the social world. For example, suppose you heard a principal complain about teacher morale

in a school. Teacher morale is an empirical reality, and we can create some instrument for its

measurement.

Measurement in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use careful, systematic methods to gather high quality data.

Yet, differences in the styles of research and the types of data mean they approach the measurement

process differently. Designing precise ways to measure variables is a vital step in planning a study for

quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers use wider variety of techniques to measure and create

new measures while collecting data. The two approaches to measurement have three distinctions.

One difference between the two styles involves timing. Quantitative researchers extensively think about

variables and convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs before and separate

from gathering or analyzing data. Measurement for qualitative researchers occurs in the data collection

process, and only a little occurs in a separate, planning stage prior to data gathering.

A second difference involves the data itself. Quantitative researchers want to develop techniques that

can produce quantitative data (i.e. data in the form of numbers). Thus, the researcher moves from

abstract ideas, or variables, to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical information

produced by the techniques. The numerical information is an empirical representation of the abstract

ideas. Data for qualitative researchers sometimes is in the form of numbers; more often it includes

written or spoken word, actions, sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. The qualitative

researcher does not convert all observations into a single, common medium such as numbers. Instead he

or she develops many flexible, ongoing processes to measure that leaves the data in various shapes,

sizes, and forms.

All researchers combine ideas and data to analyze the social world. In both research styles, data are

empirical representation of concepts, and measurement is a process that links data to concepts. A third

difference is how the two styles make such linkages. Quantitative researchers contemplate and reflect

on concepts before they gather data. They construct measurement techniques that bridge concepts and

data. The measurement techniques define what the data will be and are directions for gathering data.

Qualitative researchers also reflect on ideas before data collection, but they develop many, if not most,

of their concepts during data collection activities. Researchers start gathering data and creating ways to

measure based what they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect on the process and develop new

ideas. The ideas give them direction and suggest new ways to measure.

Research Methods STA630

Here we shall focus on quantitative measurement. Here measurement consists of assigning numbers to

empirical events in compliance with set rules. This definition implies that measurement is a three-part

process:

1. Selecting observable empirical events.

2. Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to represent

aspects of the event being measured.

3. Applying the mapping rule(s) to each observation of that event.

Assume you are studying people who attend an auto show where all year's new models are on display.

You are interested in learning the male-to female ratio among attendees. You observe those who enter

the show area. If a person is female, you record an F; if male, an M. Any other symbols such as 0 and 1

may also be used if you know what group the symbol identifies.

Researchers might also want to measure the desirability of the styling of the new Espace van. They

interview a sample of visitors and assign, with a different mapping rule, their opinions to the following

scale:

What is your opinion of the styling of the Espace van?

Very desirable 5_______4_______3_______2________1 Very undesirable

We can assign a weight-age (score) like:

5 if it is very desirable

4 if desirable

3 if neither

2 if undesirable

1 if very undesirable.

All measurement theorists would call such opinion rating scale as a form of measurement.

What is measured?

Variable being studied in research may be classified as objects or as properties. Objects include the

things of ordinary experience, such as tables, people, books, and automobiles. Objects also include

things that are not as concrete, such as genes, attitudes, neutrons, and peer group pressures. Properties

are the characteristics of the objects. A person's physical properties may be stated in terms of weight,

height, and posture. Psychological properties include attitudes, intelligence, motivation, perceptions,

etc. Social properties include leadership ability, class affiliation, or status. These and many other

properties of an individual can be measured in a research study.

In a literal sense, researchers do not measure either objects or properties. They measure indicants of the

properties or indicants of the properties of the objects. The properties like age, years of experience, and

the number of calls made per week are easier to indicate and there is expected to be lot of agreement.

In contrast, it is not easy to measure properties like "motivation," "ability to stand stress," "problem-

solving ability," and "persuasiveness." Since each property cannot be measured directly, one must infer

its presence or absence by observing some indicant or pointer measurement. When you begin to make

these inferences, there is often disagreement about how to operationalize the indicants.

The preceding discussion suggests two types of variables: one lends itself to objective and precise

measurement; the other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its

subjective nature. However, despite the lack of physical measuring devices to measure the latter type,

there are ways to tapping the subjective feelings and perceptions of individuals. One technique is to

reduce the abstract notions, or concepts such as motivation, involvement, satisfaction, buyer behavior,

Research Methods STA630

stock market exuberance, and the like, to observable behavior and characteristics. In other words, the

abstract notions are broken down into observable characteristic behavior. Reducing the abstract

concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way is called operationalizing thee concepts.

Parts of the Measurement Process

When a researcher measures, he or she takes a concept, idea, or construct and develops a measure (i.e. a

technique, a process, a procedure) by which he or she can observe the idea empirically. Quantitative

researchers primarily follow a deductive route. To begin with the abstract idea, follow with a

measurement procedure, and end with empirical data that represent the ideas. Qualitative researchers

primarily follow inductive route. They begin with empirical data, follow with abstract ideas, follow

with processes relating with ideas and data, and end with a mixture of ideas and data.

Researchers use two processes: conceptualization and operationalization in measurement.

a. Conceptualization

Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct and refining it by giving it a conceptual or

theoretical definition. A conceptual definition is definition in abstract, theoretical terms. It refers to

other ideas or constructs. There is no magical way to turn a construct into a precise conceptual

definition. It involves thinking carefully, observing directly, consulting with others, reading what others

have said, and trying possible definitions.

A good definition has one clear, explicit, and specific meaning. There is no ambiguity or vagueness in

the concepts (e.g. street gang, morale, motivation, social class, consumer satisfaction). A single

construct can have several definitions, and people may disagree over definitions. Conceptual definitions

are linked to theoretical frameworks and to value positions. For example, a conflict theorist may define

social class as the power and property a group of people in society has or lacks. A structural

functionalist defines it in terms of individuals who share a social status, life-style, or subjective

identification. Although people disagree over definitions, the researcher should always state explicitly

which definition he or she is using.

Before you can measure, you need a concept. You also need to distinguish what you are interested in

from other things. The idea that you first need a construct or concept of what is to be measured simply

makes sense. How can you observe or measure something unless you know what you are looking for?

For example, we want to measure teacher morale. We first define teacher morale. What does the

construct morale mean? As a variable construct, it takes on different values high versus low or good

versus bad morale. Next we create a measure of this construct. This could take the form of survey

questions, an examination of school records, or observations of teachers. Also we distinguish morale

from other things in the answers to survey questions, school records, or observations.

How can we develop a conceptual definition of teacher morale, or at least a tentative working definition

to get started? Look in the everyday understanding of morale something vague like "how people feel

about things." Also look in the dictionary, which gives definitions like "confidence, spirit, zeal,

cheerfulness, esprit de corps, and mental condition towards something." Look into the review of

literature and see how other researchers have defined this concept. In this effort we collect various

definitions, parts of definitions, and related ideas, whereby we draw the boundaries of the core idea.

We find that most of these definitions say that morale is a spirit, feeling, or mental condition toward

something, or a group feeling. But we are interested in teacher morale. We can ask teachers to specify

as what does this construct mean to them? One strategy is to make a list of examples of high or low

teacher morale. High teacher morale includes saying positive things about the school, not complaining

about extra-work or enjoying being with students. Low morale includes complaining a lot, not

attending school events unless required to, or looking for other jobs.

Research Methods STA630

Morale involves a feeling toward something else; a person has morale with regard to something. A list

of various "somethings" toward which teachers have feelings (e.g. students, parents, pay, the school

administration, other teachers, the profession of teaching). Are there several kinds of teacher morale or

all these "somethings" aspects of one construct? We have to decide whether morale means a single,

general feeling with different parts or dimensions, or several distinct feelings.

What unit of analysis does our construct apply to: a group or an individual? Is morale a characteristic of

an individual, of a group, or of both?

A researcher must distinguish the construct of interest from related constructs. How is our construct of

teacher morale similar to or different from related concepts? For example, does morale differ from

mood? We decide that mood is more individual and temporary than morale. Morale is a group feeling

that includes positive or negative feelings about the future as well as other beliefs and feelings.

Who is a teacher? We have to decide.

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