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ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS:PREAMBLE

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LESSON 09
ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS
Whether a psychologist is a researcher, teacher, therapist, or administrator, he or she is expected to
maintain the highest professional ethics in all professional activities at all times. In fact, psychology is
one of the few fields that have adopted ethical guidelines that hold members to a much higher standard
than the law. It is especially important for the field of psychology to focus on professional ethics since
psychologists generally have a high degree of responsibility that often significantly impacts the lives of
others. For example, clinical psychologists who conduct psychotherapy are entrusted with the emotional
and often physical vulnerabilities, confidences and well-being of the people who seek their guidance.
Clinical psychologists who are teachers or professors are called upon to provide objective, state-of-the-
art, and unbiased information to their students. Clinical psychologists conducting research must design
and conduct high quality research, protect the rights of subjects, and carefully interpret and report their
results in order to contribute meaningful information and knowledge about human behavior to the
professional community. Thus, clinical psychologists must closely and carefully follow ethical
principles to ensure that they behave in an appropriate, responsible, and professional manner protecting
the public as well as the profession.
RATIONALE
What are the ethical guidelines for psychologists? How exactly should a psychologist behave? How can
a psychologist be sure that he or she is behaving appropriately? While certain behaviors seem easy to
recognize as unethical such as sexual contact with current patients, falsifying research data or records,
breaking patient confidentiality, and over-billing, many other behaviors may not be so clear. The Ethics
Code has been updated nine times by the American Psychological Association since the original 1953
document was published. This current version of the APA Ethics Code was adopted by the American
Psychological Association's Council of Representatives during its meeting, August 21, 2002, and is
effective beginning June 1, 2003.
INTRODUCTION AND APPLICABILITY
The American Psychological Association's (APA's) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code) consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five
General Principles (A - E), and specific Ethical Standards. The Introduction discusses the intent,
organization, procedural considerations, and scope of application of the Ethics Code. The Preamble and
General Principles are aspirational goals to guide psychologists toward the highest ideals of psychology.
Although the Preamble and General Principles are not themselves enforceable rules, they should be
considered by psychologists in arriving at an ethical course of action. The Ethical Standards set forth
enforceable rules for conduct as psychologists. Most of the Ethical Standards are written broadly, in
order to apply to psychologists in varied roles, although the application of an Ethical Standard may vary
depending on the context.
This Ethics Code applies only to psychologists' activities that are part of their scientific, educational, or
professional roles as psychologists. Areas covered include but are not limited to the clinical, counseling,
and school practice of psychology; research; teaching; supervision of trainees; public service; policy
development; social intervention; development of assessment instruments; conducting assessments;
educational counseling; organizational consulting; forensic activities; program design and evaluation;
and administration. This Ethics Code applies to these activities across a variety of contexts, such as in
person, postal, telephone, internet, and other electronic transmissions.
Membership in the APA commits members and student affiliates to comply with the standards of the
APA Ethics Code and to the rules and procedures used to enforce them. Lack of awareness or
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misunderstanding of an Ethical Standard is not itself a defense to a charge of unethical conduct. APA
may impose sanctions on its members for violations of the standards of the Ethics Code, including
termination of AP membership, and may notify other bodies and individuals of its actions.
If this Ethics Code establishes a higher standard of conduct than is required by law, psychologists must
meet the higher ethical standard. If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations,
or other governing legal authority, psychologists make known their commitment to this Ethics Code and
take steps to resolve the conflict in a responsible manner. If the conflict is irresolvable via such means,
psychologists may adhere to the requirements of the law, regulations, or other governing authority in
keeping with basic principles of human rights.
PREAMBLE
Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behavior and
people's understanding of themselves and others and to the use of such knowledge to improve the
condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Psychologists respect and protect civil and human
rights and the central importance of freedom of inquiry and expression in research, teaching, and
publication. They strive to help the public in developing informed judgments and choices concerning
human behavior. In doing so, they perform many roles, such as researcher, educator, diagnostician,
therapist, supervisor, consultant, administrator, social interventionist, and expert witness. This Ethics
Code provides a common set of principles and standards upon which psychologists build their
professional and scientific work.
This Ethics Code is intended to provide specific standards to cover most situations encountered by
psychologists. It has as its goals the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom
psychologists work and the education of members, students, and the public regarding ethical standards
of the discipline.
The development of a dynamic set of ethical standards for psychologists' work-related conduct requires
a personal commitment and lifelong effort to act ethically; to encourage ethical behavior by students,
supervisees, employees, and colleagues; and to consult with others concerning ethical problems.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
General Principles, as opposed to Ethical Standards, are aspirational in nature. Their intent is to guide
and inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. General Principles, in
contrast to Ethical Standards, do not represent obligations and should not form the basis for imposing
sanctions. Relying upon General Principles for either of these reasons distorts both their meaning and
purpose.
PRINCIPLE A: BENEFICENCE AND NONMALEFICENCE
Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. In their
professional actions, psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they
interact professionally and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. When
conflicts occur among psychologists' obligations or concerns, they attempt to resolve these conflicts in a
responsible fashion that avoids or minimizes harm. Because psychologists' scientific and professional
judgments and actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal,
financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to misuse of their influence.
Psychologists strive to be aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their
ability to help those with whom they work.
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PRINCIPLE B: FIDELITY AND RESPONSIBILITY
Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of their
professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they
work. Psychologists uphold professional standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles and
obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for their behavior, and seek to manage conflicts of interest
that could lead to exploitation or harm. Psychologists consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other
professionals and institutions to the extent needed to serve the best interests of those with whom they
work. They are concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues' scientific and professional
conduct. Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no
compensation or personal advantage.
PRINCIPLE C: INTEGRITY
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice
of psychology. In these activities psychologists do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or
intentional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their promises and to avoid unwise or
unclear commitments. In situations in which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits
and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible
consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that
arise from the use of such techniques.
PRINCIPLE D: JUSTICE
Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the
contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being
conducted by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions to ensure
that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their expertise do
not lead to or condone unjust practices.
PRINCIPLE E: RESPECT FOR PEOPLE'S RIGHTS AND DIGNITY
Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy,
confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be
necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair
autonomous decision making. Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role
differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national
origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status and consider these
factors when working with members of such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their
work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of
others based upon such prejudices.
ETHICAL STANDARDS
1. RESOLVING ETHICAL ISSUES
1.01 Misuse of Psychologists' Work
If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of their work, they take reasonable steps to correct
or minimize the misuse or misrepresentation.
1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority
If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal
authority, psychologists make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the
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conflict. If the conflict is un-resolvable via such means, psychologists may adhere to the requirements of
the law, regulations, or other governing legal authority.
1.03 Conflicts between Ethics and Organizational Demands
If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they are working
conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their
commitment to the Ethics Code, and to the extent feasible, resolve the conflict in a way that permits
adherence to the Ethics Code.
1.04 Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations
When psychologists believe that there may have been an ethical violation by another psychologist, they
attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that individual, if an informal resolution
appears appropriate and the intervention does not violate any confidentiality rights that may be
involved.
1.05 Reporting Ethical Violations
If an apparent ethical violation has substantially harmed or is likely to substantially harm a person or
organization and is not appropriate for informal resolution under Standard 1.04, Informal Resolution of
Ethical Violations, or is not resolved properly in that fashion, psychologists take further action
appropriate to the situation. Such action might include referral to state or national committees on
professional ethics, to state licensing boards, or to the appropriate institutional authorities. This standard
does not apply when an intervention would violate confidentiality rights or when psychologists have
been retained to review the work of another psychologist whose professional conduct is in question.
1.06 Cooperating With Ethics Committees
Psychologists cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting requirements of the APA or
any affiliated state psychological association to which they belong. In doing so, they address any
confidentiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation. However, making a request for
deferment of adjudication of an ethics complaint pending the outcome of litigation does not alone
constitute non-cooperation.
1.07 Improper Complaints
Psychologists do not file or encourage the filing of ethics complaints that are made with reckless
disregard for or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove the allegation.
1.08 Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents
Psychologists do not deny persons employment, advancement, admissions to academic or other
programs, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon their having made or their being the subject of an
ethics complaint. This does not preclude taking action based upon the outcome of such proceedings or
considering other appropriate information.
2. COMPETENCE
2.01 Boundaries of Competence
(a) Psychologists provide services, teach, and conduct research with populations and in areas only
within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience,
consultation, study, or professional experience.
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(b) Where scientific or professional knowledge in the discipline of psychology establishes that an
understanding of factors associated with age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national
origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status is essential for effective
implementation of their services or research, psychologists have or obtain the training, experience,
consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make
appropriate referrals.
(c) Psychologists planning to provide services, teach, or conduct research involving populations, areas,
techniques, or technologies new to them undertake relevant education, training, supervised experience,
consultation, or study.
(d) When psychologists are asked to provide services to individuals for whom appropriate mental health
services are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the competence necessary,
psychologists with closely related prior training or experience may provide such services in order to
ensure that services are not denied if they make a reasonable effort to obtain the competence required by
using relevant research, training, consultation, or study.
(e) In those emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training do not yet
exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps to ensure the competence of their work and to
protect clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others
from harm.
(f) When assuming forensic roles, psychologists are or become reasonably familiar with the judicial or
administrative rules governing their roles.
2.02 Providing Services in Emergencies
In emergencies, when psychologists provide services to individuals for whom other mental health
services are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the necessary training,
psychologists may provide such services in order to ensure that services are not denied. The services are
discontinued as soon as the emergency has ended or appropriate services are available.
2.03 Maintaining Competence
Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and maintain their competence.
2.04 Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments
Psychologists' work is based upon established scientific and professional knowledge of the discipline.
2.05 Delegation of Work to Others
Psychologists who delegate work to employees, supervisees, or research or teaching assistants or who
use the services of others, such as interpreters, take reasonable steps to (1) avoid delegating such work
to persons who have a multiple relationship with those being served that would likely lead to
exploitation or loss of objectivity; (2) authorize only those responsibilities that such persons can be
expected to perform competently on the basis of their education, training, or experience, either
independently or with the level of supervision being provided; and (3) see that such persons perform
these services competently.
2.06 Personal Problems and Conflicts
(a) Psychologists refrain from initiating an activity when they know or should know that there is a
substantial likelihood that their personal problems will prevent them from performing their work-related
activities in a competent manner.
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(b) When psychologists become aware of personal problems that may interfere with their performing
work-related duties adequately, they take appropriate measures, such as obtaining professional
consultation or assistance, and determine whether they should limit, suspend, or terminate their work-
related duties.
3. HUMAN RELATIONS
3.01 Unfair Discrimination
In their work-related activities, psychologists do not engage in unfair discrimination based on age,
gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability,
socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law.
3.02 Harassment
Psychologists do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with
whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, gender identity,
race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or
socioeconomic status.
3.03 Avoiding Harm
Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients, students, supervisees,
research participants, organizational clients, and others with whom they work, and to minimize harm
where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.
3.04 Multiple Relationships
(a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and (1) at
the same time is in another role with the same person, (2) at the same time is in a relationship with a
person closely associated with or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional
relationship, or (3) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the person or a person
closely associated with or related to the person.
A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationship could
reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist's objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in
performing his or her functions as a psychologist, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person
with whom the professional relationship exists.
Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or
harm are not unethical.
(b) If a psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a potentially harmful multiple relationship has
arisen, the psychologist takes reasonable steps to resolve it with due regard for the best interests of the
affected person and maximal compliance with the Ethics Code.
(c) When psychologists are required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve
in more than one role in judicial or administrative proceedings, at the outset they clarify role
expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur.
3.05 Conflict of Interest
Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional role when personal, scientific, professional, legal,
financial, or other interests or relationships could reasonably be expected to (1) impair their objectivity,
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competence, or effectiveness in performing their functions as psychologists or (2) expose the person or
organization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or exploitation.
3.06 Third-Party Requests for Services
When psychologists agree to provide services to a person or entity at the request of a third party,
psychologists attempt to clarify at the outset of the service the nature of the relationship with all
individuals or organizations involved. This clarification includes the role of the psychologist (e.g.,
therapist, consultant, diagnostician, or expert witness), an identification of who is the client, the
probable uses of the services provided or the information obtained, and the fact that there may be limits
to confidentiality.
3.07 Exploitative Relationships
Psychologists do not exploit persons over whom they have supervisory, evaluative, or other authority
such as clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, and employees.
3.08 Cooperation with Other Professionals
When indicated and professionally appropriate, psychologists cooperate with other professionals in
order to serve their clients/patients effectively and appropriately.
3.09 Informed Consent
(a) When psychologists conduct research or provide assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting
services in person or via electronic transmission or other forms of communication, they obtain the
informed consent of the individual or individuals using language that is reasonably understandable to
that person or persons except when conducting such activities without consent is mandated by law or
governmental regulation or as otherwise provided in this Ethics Code.
(b) For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent, psychologists nevertheless (1)
provide an appropriate explanation, (2) seek the individual's assent, (3) consider such persons'
preferences and best interests, and (4) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorized person, if
such substitute consent is permitted or required by law. When consent by a legally authorized person is
not permitted or required by law, psychologists take reasonable steps to protect the individual's rights
and welfare.
(c) When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise mandated, psychologists inform the
individual of the nature of the anticipated services, including whether the services are court ordered or
mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding.
(d) Psychologists appropriately document written or oral consent, permission, and assent.
3.10 Psychological Services Delivered To or Through Organizations
(a) Psychologists delivering services to or through organizations provide information beforehand to
clients and when appropriate those directly affected by the services about (1) the nature and objectives
of the services, (2) the intended recipients, (3) which of the individuals are clients, (4) the relationship
the psychologist will have with each person and the organization, (5) the probable uses of services
provided and information obtained, (6) who will have access to the information, and (7) limits of
confidentiality. As soon as feasible, they provide information about the results and conclusions of such
services to appropriate persons.
(b) If psychologists will be prohibited by law or by organizational roles from providing such
information to particular individuals or groups, they so inform those individuals or groups at the outset
of the service.
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3.11 Interruption of Psychological Services
Unless otherwise covered by contract, psychologists make reasonable efforts to plan for facilitating
services in the event that psychological services are interrupted by factors such as the psychologist's
illness, death, unavailability, relocation, or retirement or by the client's/patient's relocation or financial
limitations.
4. PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality
Psychologists have a primary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protect confidential
information obtained through or stored in any medium, recognizing that the extent and limits of
confidentiality may be regulated by law or established by institutional rules or professional or scientific
relationship.
4.02 Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality
(a) Psychologists discuss with persons (including, to the extent feasible, persons who are legally
incapable of giving informed consent and their legal representatives) and organizations with whom they
establish a scientific or professional relationship (1) the relevant limits of confidentiality and (2) the
foreseeable uses of the information generated through their psychological activities.
(b) Unless it is not feasible or is contraindicated, the discussion of confidentiality occurs at the outset of
the relationship and thereafter as new circumstances may warrant.
(c) Psychologists who offer services, products, or information via electronic transmission inform
clients/patients of the risks to privacy and limits of confidentiality.
4.03 Recording
Before recording the voices or images of individuals to whom they provide services, psychologists
obtain permission from all such persons or their legal representatives.
4.04 Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy
(a) Psychologists include in written and oral reports and consultations, only information relevant to the
purpose for which the communication is made.
(b) Psychologists discuss confidential information obtained in their work only for appropriate scientific
or professional purposes and only with persons clearly concerned with such matters.
4.05 Disclosures
(a) Psychologists may disclose confidential information with the appropriate consent of the
organizational client, the individual client/patient, or another legally authorized person on behalf of the
client/patient unless prohibited by law.
(b) Psychologists disclose confidential information without the consent of the individual only as
mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid purpose such as to (1) provide needed
professional services; (2) obtain appropriate professional consultations; (3) protect the client/patient,
psychologist, or others from harm; or (4) obtain payment for services from a client/patient, in which
instance disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the purpose.
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4.06 Consultations
When consulting with colleagues, (1) psychologists do not disclose confidential information that
reasonably could lead to the identification of a client/patient, research participant, or other person or
organization with whom they have a confidential relationship unless they have obtained the prior
consent of the person or organization or the disclosure cannot be avoided, and (2) they disclose
information only to the extent necessary to achieve the purposes of the consultation.
4.07 Use of Confidential Information for Educational or Other Purposes
Psychologists do not disclose in their writings, lectures, or other public media, confidential, personally
identifiable information concerning their clients/patients, students, research participants, organizational
clients, or other recipients of their services that they obtained during the course of their work, unless (1)
they take reasonable steps to disguise the person or organization, (2) the person or organization has
consented in writing, or (3) there is legal authorization for doing so.
5. RECORD KEEPING AND FEES
5.01 Documentation of Professional and Scientific Work and Maintenance of Records
Psychologists create, and to the extent the records are under their control, maintain, disseminate, store,
retain, and dispose of records and data relating to their professional and scientific work in order to (1)
facilitate provision of services later by them or by other professionals, (2) allow for replication of
research design and analyses, (3) meet institutional requirements, (4) ensure accuracy of billing and
payments, and (5) ensure compliance with law.
5.02 Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records of Professional and
Scientific Work
(a) Psychologists maintain confidentiality in creating, storing, accessing, transferring, and disposing of
records under their control, whether these are written, automated, or in any other medium.
b) If confidential information concerning recipients of psychological services is entered into databases
or systems of records available to persons whose access has not been consented to by the recipient,
psychologists use coding or other techniques to avoid the inclusion of personal identifiers.
(c) Psychologists make plans in advance to facilitate the appropriate transfer and to protect the
confidentiality of records and data in the event of psychologists' withdrawal from positions or practice.
5.03 Withholding Records for Nonpayment
Psychologists may not withhold records under their control that are requested and needed for a
client's/patient's emergency treatment solely because payment has not been received.
5.04 Fees and Financial Arrangements
(a) As early as is feasible in a professional or scientific relationship, psychologists and recipients of
psychological services reach an agreement specifying compensation and billing arrangements.
(b) Psychologists' fee practices are consistent with law.
(c) Psychologists do not misrepresent their fees.
(d) If limitations to services can be anticipated because of limitations in financing, this is discussed with
the recipient of services as early as is feasible.
(e) If the recipient of services does not pay for services as agreed, and if psychologists intend to use
collection agencies or legal measures to collect the fees, psychologists first inform the person that such
measures will be taken and provide that person an opportunity to make prompt payment.
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5.05 Barter with Clients/Patients
Barter is the acceptance of goods, services, or other non-monetary remuneration from clients/patients in
return for psychological services. Psychologists may barter only if (1) it is not clinically contraindicated,
and (2) the resulting arrangement is not exploitative.
5.06 Accuracy in Reports to Payors and Funding Sources
In their reports to payors for services or sources of research funding, psychologists take reasonable steps
to ensure the accurate reporting of the nature of the service provided or research conducted, the fees,
charges, or payments, and where applicable, the identity of the provider, the findings, and the diagnosis.
5.07 Referrals and Fees
When psychologists pay, receive payment from, or divide fees with another professional, other than in
an employer-employee relationship, the payment to each is based on the services provided (clinical,
consultative, administrative, or other) and is not based on the referral itself.
6. ASSESSMENT
6.01 Bases for Assessments
(a) Psychologists base the opinions contained in their recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or
evaluative statements, including forensic testimony, on information and techniques sufficient to
substantiate their findings.
(b) Except as noted in 6.01c, psychologists provide opinions of the psychological characteristics of
individuals only after they have conducted an examination of the individuals adequate to support their
statements or conclusions. When, despite reasonable efforts, such an examination is not practical,
psychologists document the efforts they made and the result of those efforts, clarify the probable impact
of their limited information on the reliability and validity of their opinions, and appropriately limit the
nature and extent of their conclusions or recommendations.
c) When psychologists conduct a record review or provide consultation or supervision and an individual
examination is not warranted or necessary for the opinion, psychologists explain this and the sources of
information on which they based their conclusions and recommendations.
6.02 Use of Assessments
(a) Psychologists administer, adapt, score, interpret, or use assessment techniques, interviews, tests, or
instruments in a manner and for purposes that are appropriate in light of the research on or evidence of
the usefulness and proper application of the techniques.
(b) Psychologists use assessment instruments whose validity and reliability have been established for
use with members of the population tested. When such validity or reliability has not been established,
psychologists describe the strengths and limitations of test results and interpretation.
(c) Psychologists use assessment methods that are appropriate to an individual's language preference
and competence, unless the use of an alternative language is relevant to the assessment issues.
6.03 Informed Consent in Assessments
(a) Psychologists obtain informed consent for assessments, evaluations, or diagnostic services, as
described in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, except when (1) testing is mandated by law or
governmental regulations; (2) informed consent is implied because testing is conducted as a routine
educational, institutional, or organizational activity (e.g., when participants voluntarily agree to
assessment when applying for a job); or (3) one purpose of the testing is to evaluate decisional capacity.
Informed consent includes an explanation of the nature and purpose of the assessment, fees,
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involvement of third parties, and limits of confidentiality and sufficient opportunity for the client/patient
to ask questions and receive answers.
(b) Psychologists inform persons with questionable capacity to consent or for whom testing is mandated
by law or governmental regulations about the nature and purpose of the proposed assessment services,
using language that is reasonably understandable to the person being assessed.
(c) Psychologists using the services of an interpreter obtain informed consent from the client/patient to
use that interpreter, ensure that confidentiality of test results and test security are maintained, and
include in their recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements, including forensic
testimony, discussion of any limitations on the data obtained.
6.04 Interpreting Assessment Results
When interpreting assessment results, including automated interpretations, psychologists take into
account the purpose of the assessment as well as the various test factors, test-taking abilities, and other
characteristics of the person being assessed, such as situational, personal, linguistic, and cultural
differences that might affect psychologists' judgments or reduce the accuracy of their interpretations.
They indicate any significant limitations of their interpretations.
6.05 Assessment by Unqualified Persons
Psychologists do not promote the use of psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons,
except when such use is conducted for training purposes with appropriate supervision.
6.06 Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results
(a) Psychologists do not base their assessment or intervention decisions or recommendations on data or
test results that are outdated for the current purpose.
(b) Psychologists do not base such decisions or recommendations on tests and measures that are
obsolete and not useful for the current purpose.
6.07 Explaining Assessment Results
Regardless of whether the scoring and interpretation are done by psychologists, by employees or
assistants, or by automated or other outside services, psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that
explanations of results are given to the individual or designated representative unless the nature of the
relationship precludes provision of an explanation of results (such as in some organizational consulting,
pre-employment or security screenings, and forensic evaluations), and this fact has been clearly
explained to the person being assessed in advance.
7. THERAPY
7.01 Informed Consent to Therapy
(a) When obtaining informed consent to therapy , psychologists inform clients/patients as early as is
feasible in the therapeutic relationship about the nature and anticipated course of therapy, fees,
involvement of third parties, and limits of confidentiality and provide sufficient opportunity for the
client/patient to ask questions and receive answers.
(b) When obtaining informed consent for treatment for which generally recognized techniques and
procedures have not been established, psychologists inform their clients/patients of the developing
nature of the treatment, the potential risks involved, alternative treatments that may be available, and the
voluntary nature of their participation.
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(c) When the therapist is a trainee and the legal responsibility for the treatment provided resides with the
supervisor, the client/patient, as part of the informed consent procedure, is informed that the therapist is
in training and is being supervised and is given the name of the supervisor.
7.02 Therapy Involving Couples or Families
(a) When psychologists agree to provide services to several persons who have a relationship (such as
spouses, significant others, or parents and children), they take reasonable steps to clarify at the outset (1)
which of the individuals are clients/patients and (2) the relationship the psychologist will have with each
person. This clarification includes the psychologist's role and the probable uses of the services provided
or the information obtained.
b) If it becomes apparent that psychologists may be called on to perform potentially conflicting roles
(such as family therapist and then witness for one party in divorce proceedings), psychologists take
reasonable steps to clarify and modify, or withdraw from, roles appropriately.
7.03 Group Therapy
When psychologists provide services to several persons in a group setting, they describe at the outset the
roles and responsibilities of all parties and the limits of confidentiality.
7.04 Providing Therapy to Those Served by Others
In deciding whether to offer or provide services to those already receiving mental health services
elsewhere, psychologists carefully consider the treatment issues and the potential client's/patient's
welfare. Psychologists discuss these issues with the client/patient or another legally authorized person
on behalf of the client/patient in order to minimize the risk of confusion and conflict, consult with the
other service providers when appropriate, and proceed with caution and sensitivity to the therapeutic
issues.
7.05 Sexual Intimacies With Current Therapy Clients/Patients
Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with current therapy clients/patients.
7.06 Sexual Intimacies With Relatives or Significant Others of Current Therapy Clients/Patients
Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with individuals they know to be close relatives,
guardians, or significant others of current clients/patients. Psychologists do not terminate therapy to
circumvent this standard.
7.07 Interruption of Therapy
When entering into employment or contractual relationships, psychologists make reasonable efforts to
provide for orderly and appropriate resolution of responsibility for client/patient care in the event that
the employment or contractual relationship ends, with paramount consideration given to the welfare of
the client/patient.
7.08 Terminating Therapy
(a) Psychologists terminate therapy when it becomes reasonably clear that the client/patient no longer
needs the service, is not likely to benefit, or is being harmed by continued service.
(b) Psychologists may terminate therapy when threatened or otherwise endangered by the client/patient
or another person with whom the client/patient has a relationship.
(c) Except where precluded by the actions of clients/patients or third-party payors, prior to termination
psychologists provide pre-termination counseling and suggest alternative service providers as
appropriate.
68
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Clinical Psychology­ (PSY401)
VU
CONCLUSION
As we study these ethical standards, it becomes clear that clinical psychologists must closely and
carefully follow ethical principles to ensure that they behave in an appropriate, responsible, and
professional manner protecting the public as well as the profession.
69
Table of Contents:
  1. MENTAL HEALTH TODAY: A QUICK LOOK OF THE PICTURE:PARA-PROFESSIONALS
  2. THE SKILLS & ACTIVITIES OF A CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST:THE INTERNSHIP
  3. HOW A CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST THINKS:Brian’s Case; an example, PREDICTION
  4. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:THE GREEK PERIOD
  5. HISTORY OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:Research, Assessment, CONCLUSION
  6. HOW CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS BECAME INVOLVED IN TREATMENT
  7. MODELS OF TRAINING IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS
  8. CURRENT ISSUES IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:CERTIFICATION, LICENSING
  9. ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS:PREAMBLE
  10. THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:LIMITATION
  11. THE RESEARCH PROCESS:GENERATING HYPOTHESES, RESEARCH METHODS
  12. THE CONCEPT OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR & MENTAL ILLNESS
  13. CAUSES OF MENTAL ILLNESOVERVIEW OF ETIOLOGY:PANDAS
  14. THE PROCESS OF DIAGNOSIS:ADVANTAGES OF DIAGNOSIS, DESCRIPTION
  15. THE CONCEPT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
  16. THE CLINICAL INTERVIEW:The intake / admission interview, Structured interview
  17. THE ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE:RELIABILTY AND VALIDITY, CATTELL’S THEORY
  18. INTELLIGENCE TESTS:PURPOSE, COMMON PROCEDURES, PURPOSE
  19. THE USE AND ABUSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING:PERSONALITY
  20. THE PROJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS:THE RORSCHACH
  21. THE OBSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT AND ITS TYPES:Home Observation
  22. THE BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT THROUGH INTERVIEWS, INVENTORIES AND CHECK LISTS
  23. THE PROCESS AND ACCURACY OF CLINICAL JUDGEMENT:Comparison Studies
  24. METHODS OF IMPROVING INTERPRETATION AND JUDGMENT
  25. PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS AND THEIR GOALS:THE EXPERT ROLE
  26. IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY:ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
  27. COURSE OF NEW CLINICAL INTERVENTIONS:IMPLEMENTING TREATMENT
  28. NATURE OF SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC VARIABLES:CLIENT’S MOTIVATION
  29. THE BEGINNING OF PSYCHOANALYSIS:THE CASE OF ANNA, THE INSTINCTS
  30. PSYCHOANALYTIC ALTERNATIVES:EGO ANALYSIS, CURATIVE FACTORS
  31. CLIENT CENTERED THERAPY:PURPOSE, BACKGROUND, PROCESS
  32. GESTALT THERAPY METHODS AND PROCEDURES:SELF-DIALOGUE
  33. ORIGINS AND TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY
  34. COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY:MODELING, RATIONAL RESTRUCTURING
  35. GROUP THERAPY: METHODS AND PROCEDURES:CURATIVE FACTORS
  36. FAMILY AND COUPLES THERAPY:POSSIBLE RISKS
  37. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY:THE ENVIRONMENT
  38. METHODS OF INTERVENTION AND CHANGE IN COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY
  39. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
  40. APPLICATIONS OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY:OBESITY, HEALTH CARE TRENDS
  41. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES AND HISTORY:STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
  42. METHODS OF NEUROLOGICAL ASSESSMENT:Level Of Performance, Pattern Analysis
  43. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY:Qualification, Testifying, Cross Examination, Criminal Cases
  44. PEDIATRIC AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGY: HISTORY AND PERSPECTIVE
  45. INTERVENTIONS & TRAINING IN PEDIATRIC AND CLINICAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY