CONDUCTING AND WRITING OF INTERVIEWS:Kinds of interviews

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Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

LESSON 06

CONDUCTING AND WRITING OF INTERVIEWS

Interview is an important aspect for feature writing. Newspaper and magazine features interviews are

similar. The only important difference is that the typical newspaper feature interview may be somewhat

less thorough because the newspaper writer frequently faces an imminent deadline.

Definition

According to a loose or general definition, interview is `Asking questions to obtain information'.

Strict or technical definition: Asking questions to obtain opinions, ideas, or special information on a topic

of interest from a prominent person or a recognised authority.

Kinds of interviews

Following are the types of interviews:

Informative: This interview is to obtain facts from those responsible for something, or have witnessed an

event or participated in a news situation; playing up the important facts.

Opinion: This is to obtain comments and opinions, and the writer play-up comments

Personality-based: This is done for a celebrity or well-known person to obtain facts of personality, his

interests, life and activities. However, talking to the less known is a different case scenario.

Kinds of interviews (availability of the interviewee)

It depends upon the availability of the interviewee, which makes the following kinds of interviews:

In-person interviews

Interviews for newspapers or magazines can be conducted in person, by telephone, email, in a group or by

letter. Each category of interview has a unique purpose, as well as distinct advantages and disadvantages.

For example, the skilfully conducted personal interview--the cornerstone of the story--should yield good

quotations, accurate description and insight into the issues and individuals in the story.

The disadvantage of the personal interview is that it takes time--time to arrange, time to gain the

confidence of the subject, time to get the necessary information and time to disengage from the interview.

Telephonic interviews

If the personal interview is like a full meal, the telephone interview is a fast-food sandwich because it

serves a purpose, but in a minimal way.

The advantage of the telephone interview, usually used for a story's secondary figures or for re-interviews

of primary subjects, is its quickness, like fast food.

One disadvantage of using the telephone is that you cannot see the interviewee, which means you can't

describe him or her. The main disadvantage is that you cannot establish much rapport with the

interviewee because of the impersonality of the telephone. To mitigate this disadvantage, work on your

telephone manners and also provide verbal reinforcement for interviews, such as an occasional "Uh-huh"

or "I understand.".

Group session

The third category of interview is the group session, often with a subject whose spouse or friend is

present. A variation is an interview with a company employee in the presence of one or more corporate

public relations representatives.

The only advantage to the group interview is that it's better than no interview at all. Its disadvantages are

that everyone in the room may want to answer your question, or--in the case of a PR representative

overseeing the interview--the subject's answers may be tainted.

To get the most out of a group interview, code your notebook so that you can ascertain who said what, or

use a tape recorder. Also, make arrangements to contact the prime interviewee later by telephone for

additional comments.

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

Email/letter

Occasionally a writer is unable to reach a source in person or by telephone. In that case, a written list of

questions is an alternative to no interview at all. For example, if you repeatedly fail to reach a key

executive in a major corporation, try submitting written questions. The executive may respond by email

or letter, and may even telephone you, thus upgrading the quality of the interview.

The advantage to the written interview is that, like the group interview, it's better than nothing. Its

disadvantages are numerous: You can't establish rapport with the subject; your source has ample

opportunity to ignore or to be unresponsive to your questions; you have no opportunity for clarification or

elaboration; and what you cannot see you cannot describe.

Who to interview

All ideas for interviews begin with a question: Who will be interviewed?

That sounds like an easy question, but the answer often can be elusive. For example, assume you're a

newspaper feature writer and you want to write an odd-occupation story about a so far unselected

professor at the university because you have learnt that more than half of the university professors

supplement their income with outside activities. These activities range from consulting in their field to

operating businesses.

You call the university's media liaison office and ask for help. The media representative provides you

with three names: A broadcasting professor has a half-interest in a radio station; a business teacher does

consulting for companies; and an English professor writes paperback romance novels.

Then the media liaison recalls that an education professor has recently quit his tenured post to buy and has

started irrigating his land. With that, you've found your main who and, in the process, refocused your

story, which will now be about university teachers, who leave teaching.

Your interviewee list isn't complete, of course. You'll need to talk to that teacher's former department

chairperson and a few colleagues and students. For perspective, you'll need other examples of professors

from the colleges, who have junked their teaching careers. And you'll need to find at least one expert who

can explain why professors leave teaching.

(If you were freelancing this to a national general-interest magazine, you could still focus on the

professor, but you probably would need to draw your other examples from universities across the country

to give the story national scope.)

As you can see, the focus of your story should lead you to a key "who." But the right "who" also can

change the focus of the story. Finally, except for the most superficial newspaper features, your "who"

really should be a list rather than a single name.

Asking for the interview

The next step is to ask for the interview. Getting an interview is sometimes difficult because many people

are wary of the press. For example, first-time interviewees may picture themselves confronted with

questions such as, "Do you still beat your wife?"

The best way to ask for interview time is to explain quickly and clearly, who you are, why you want the

interview and how much time you will need. Ask for enough time to complete the interview, but allow

more time in your schedule in case the interview goes beyond the allotted period.

You may also have to explain to the interviewee how the story you want to write differs from

investigative reporting and what the interview will be like.

Remember that no one (except perhaps government employees responding to questions about their work)

owes you an interview. Everyone else who agrees to talk to you is performing a courtesy. To be sure,

giving you an interview is not an act of pure altruism. The interviewee can benefit from the experience in

numerous ways, including recognition and the excitement of a new experience.

Many newspaper and magazine writers agree that asking for the interview is worrisome.

If you are writing an in-depth profile and have the time, consider the advice of writer Gael Greene.

Greene says: "In a profile, the ideal way for me to interview is practically to live with the person for two

or three days, if possible. I have a list of questions and I have done as much research as I can, have talked

to all their friends and ex-lovers and mates and so on. It's productive just to move in and sit there until

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

they stop being aware of my presence and are just being themselves. Then at some point, at lunch or din-

ner, I might ask a few questions--the soft, easy questions, and let them say the things they want to say."

In short, use common sense. If you're interviewing an executive who can tell his secretary to hold his

calls, the office probably is a good place for the session. On the other hand, if you were interviewing a

factory worker, the workplace would be a poor location because it wouldn't be private or quiet. Instead,

meet the person at home, assuming you can have a private discussion there.

Keep following brief points in your mind always:

· Making an appointment in advance

· Arrange a time and place that are convenient, importantly for the interviewee and then the

interviewer

· Use ingenuity and perseverance to obtain an interview if you fail to make an appointment

· Do not use unethical or devious means to obtain an interview

· Make appointments sufficiently in advance as people might be very busy

· Keep in unforeseen circumstances might make you miss it

· Repeat time and place of appointment before hanging up the receiver--certain that there is no

misunderstanding

Researching the interviewee

When you're granted the interview, you'll need to research both the interviewee and the topic of the

interview.

Your library research should be supplemented with calls to people who know your interviewee and

understand the topic of your article. Prepare your interviewee for this by telling him what you're going to

do and--if the story is personal--by asking the interview for the names of two or three close friends.

Talk to your seniors and colleagues as well.

You should ask for a curriculum vitae, which is an academic resume`. If your subject works for a large

company, the company public relations office might provide you with a biography, but they are not

required to do so.

With these sources, you should be able to piece together lots of information before you even talk. You'll

discover information such as his full name, age, address, academic degrees and title, previous

employment record, and other information.

The point of all this is that if you enter an interview armed with detailed information about your

interviewee, you'll be able to spend the interview time more effectively and you'll also be likely to flatter

the subject with your thoroughness.

Conducting the interview

Effective interviewing--the practice of getting another person to talk freely--is largely an exercise in

human relations. To be successful at it, you must be part used-car salesman, part psychiatrist and part a

secret agency man. You'll use some of this human relations skill in asking for the interview and in

conducting research. But most of that effort should be directed toward the interview itself--particularly

the first few minutes of the session.

Professional writers say the secret to an effective interview is to make friends, and the sooner the better.

Research has shown that the first four minutes of an interview sets the tone for the rest of the meeting,

which means that you have about 240 seconds to establish a working relationship with the subject, or be

left with an interviewee who may be unconcerned about your needs, unwilling to help and perhaps even

hostile to your presence.

The interviewee will be sizing you up during those first four minutes, researchers say. For that reason,

you need to be aware of your appearance, body language, voice, and word choice.

Let's take appearance first; which experts say makes up about half of the first impressions. Dress

appropriately. If you were interviewing a bank president in his office, blue jeans would be inappropriate

attire. On the other hand, if you're interviewing a factory worker in a blue-collar tavern, a business suit

won't help your cause. And if you are interviewing a religious figure, you need to wear a dress

accordingly.

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

Watch body language.

Head nodding is friendly and reinforcing. A blank stare may be threatening. A slouch says you are lazy.

Erect posture says you're alert.

Voice and word choice count for the other half of the impression, experts say. If you're used to speaking

loudly, soften your voice in an intimate office setting--or expect the interviewee to try to get rid of you at

the earliest opportunity. If you mispronounce a word or use poor grammar, the interviewee has every

reason to suspect you're likely to misquote him or her in the article.

In short, the interviewee is deciding whether he or she likes what you look like and how you speak at the

same time that he or she is sizing up what you're saying and how you're saying it.

Six simple techniques will help people like you--assuming you haven't shot yourself in the foot with

inappropriate attire and elocution. First, be interested in your subject. Second, smile, while you talk and

listen. Third, use the interviewee's name correctly. Fourth, be a good listener. Fifth, talk in terms of the

other person's interests and with the other person's terminology. Finally, make the interviewee feel as

though he or she is the most important person in the world by paying close attention while you're with

him or her.

Brief points

· Be sure what your assignment is and what will you do

· Select aspects that will interest your reader

· Select a definite and limited topic which could be developed adequately in a limited time

· Learn about the person as much as possible, his accomplishments, opinions, likes, dislikes,

personality

· From persons around you, from articles, books, either written by him or others about him

· Learn about the subject

· Gather enough information to speak intelligently on the topic

· Prepare a questionnaire, must be thought-provoking and current

· Questions in chronological order

· Questions of local interest

· Avoid embarrassing or personal questions, but not difficult ones

· Questions to bring out desired information

Asking questions

Think about your questions before you ask them. Most newspaper and magazine writers -- even

professionals of long standing -- jot down their questions beforehand. Of course, you should be flexible

about those questions. If you have 99 good questions but `the subject says something stunning in the

middle of the third answer, be prepared to follow that lead and spontaneously create new questions

pursuing the new angle.

As you phrase the questions--whether in your mind or on paper--scrutinise how you ask each one

because questions come in a variety of styles, each with its own effect. Here are four useful types of

questions.

The open-ended question allows the respondent broad range in the answer. If the question is unfocused,

the answer is useless. Let's assume you're interviewing students at the University for a Newspaper

Feature. Here's an unfocused open-ended question you might--but shouldn't--ask.

Example: "What's your opinion of the university?"

Opinion of what? The interviewee will think. The bookstore? Dormitory conditions? Cafeteria food?

Academic quality? Here is a more focused and useful version of the open-ended question.

Example: "How do you think the university's advising system can be improved?"

The closed question asks for a more narrow reply.

Example: "Which academic departments at the university have you heard positive things about?"

Example: "Which professors teaching general education courses would you recommend to a freshman

entering the university?"

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

The probe question asks for amplification of an unresponsive or incomplete answer.

Example: "Why do you recommend Prof (name) basic course?"

The mirror question by repeating part of the interviewee's answer, forces the respondent to amplify his

or her answer and also gives you time to finish writing down the original answer. The mirror question

often is coupled with a probe question.

In general, the writer should use focused open-ended, closed and probe questions, followed by an

occasional mirror question, to slow down the interviewee and to clarify quotations.

The writer should specifically try to avoid three question types: yes-or-no, leading and loaded questions.

Hypothetical queries may sometimes be used. Here are examples.

The yes-or-no question, which allows the interviewee to answer in only one of two ways, is virtually

useless for the feature or magazine writer because it doesn't yield a detailed answer (unless it is followed

by a probe question).

Example: "Do you think Prof (name) is a good teacher?"

The leading question is considered unethical by many writers and editors because it strongly suggests the

"right" answer to an interviewee.

The loaded question, designed to antagonise an interviewee, is equally manipulative.

A final type of question that occasionally may be used is the hypothetical query, which allows the

interviewee to think about and comment on coming developments. You must be careful to pose

hypothetical questions only about situations that are, in fact, able to occur.

Succinctly, you should carefully structure your questions. And when you structure the questions, you

should build them along the lines of focused open-ended, closed, probe and mirror queries.

Most interviews require that the writer ask some "difficult" questions. Difficult questions are hard to

define. If you're writing a profile, the difficult question could be something like, "How much money do

you make?" or "Weren't you arrested in 1984?" Be sure to ask these questions at the end of the interview

so that if the session ends abruptly, you will still have enough material to write your story.

The next step in the interview process depends upon the difficult question having been asked. If you have

asked a touchy question, you should be prepared to help the subject recuperate from the trauma of being

frank--or angry--with you.

Your interviewees will not usually be criminals and you are not a police officer, but the act of suggesting

that something said will not sound as awful as the subject thinks it will is, in fact, effective human

relations.

It is said that a writer's personality will set the tone for the interview.

Journalistic techniques really grow out of the kind of person you are. Hostile people will be hostile

reporters and friendly people will be friendly reporters. An interview is a conversation with slightly more

questions than ordinary.... If you are friendly, that comes over. If you are hostile and paranoid, that comes

over.

For example, investigative reporters tend to be paranoid. An investigative reporter once said: "We

investigative reporters are all proctologists. You look up there and you expect to see something dirty and

you do." That's what makes them so great.

Six interviewing tips most writers follow:

1. Don't come into the interview with your mind made up about the interviewee.

2. Keep your ego out of the interview: Your subject is the subject--not you.

3. Don't argue.

4. Listen; don't keep talking.

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

5. Don't interrupt if the answer is not going the way you want it, unless you don't have time and must

guide it quickly to a conclusion.

6. Assume nothing. [For instance: how a name is spelled.]

Never be ashamed of saying, "I don't understand, or "What does that mean?" or "Put it in layman's

language, please." Neophytes are often so scared of looking stupid that they don't pursue matters as far as

they should. But to ask is to learn, and to help your readers learn. To me, the only stupid question is the

unasked question.

However, it is also said there is nothing [during the interview] that can be done by the book--nothing--

except perhaps ask the really "hairy" question at the end.

People, whether they know it or not, can tell an awful lot from your body English, as one can tell from

theirs and from their facial expressions. All reporters have to do this. It's not technique so much as

instinct. All of this is based on gut feeling. There are ways of telling when a person's lying; the brief

hesitations, the people who are loath to make eye contact. All these are clues.

The intensity of the questioning will vary with the writer. For example, who has flexible deadlines, likes

to take more time with interviews. He initially spends perhaps an hour with an interviewee, then builds to

longer sessions. One tries to hang out a lot, with all types of subjects, sometimes not even taking notes.

One always works from the less significant to the more significant questions, until you know what you

want to ask. You may use the time to ask and re-ask questions, listening for nuances and speech patterns.

Brief points

· Be there in-time

· Again introduce yourself clearly, may give visiting card

· If the interviewee asks you for drinks, tell him by remaining within limits

· Be friendly and courteous

· Congratulate or condole if there is anything of the sort

· Writer--tell him that you liked his book

· Make him feel what he says is hugely important

· Try to impart an impression that you are interested in knowing what he has to say

· Breaking ice yourself might ensue problems

· Avoid interrupting the interviewee

· Enable him to do most of the talking

· Keep him going smoothly but not permitting to wander away

· Digressing from the topic, follow with interesting questions

· Observe facial impressions, mannerism and gestures

· Interested in answering, getting perturbed or happy

· Vice-versa--you are also being observed, no cracking fingers, mobile switched off or on silent--

ever picking unless emergency

· Take plenty of notes in abbreviated longhand, but not burying yourself

· Be sure you have exhausted all questions

· Ask if the interviewee wanted to say something else

· Exhaust all questions before finishing off

· Listen carefully

· Identify between important and unimportant details

· Understand if there were any ambiguities

· Spellings of all names

· Exhaust all questions before finishing off

· Thanks the person

· Observe requests if any

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

Attribution guidelines

During practically every interview, you can expect the interviewee to say at least once, "Hey, don't put

that in the story" or, "I'll answer your question if you agree not to use the information in the story." When

that happens, you're being confronted with one of the most vexing problems facing the writer--what to

do about the "off-the-record" request.

When an off-the-record request is made (whether it's in regard to something said or as yet unsaid), you

have three choices: You can agree to keep the remark secret, you can absolutely deny the subject's

request, or you can bargain to use some or all of the information in your story. Off-the-record comments

and information withheld by the subject are of little use, so most writers refuse requests to keep

information secret and attempt to bargain.

To understand how you can change the subject's off-the-record request into a usable quotation, it is

helpful to know the etiquette under which most newspaper and magazine writers operate. First, any

comment made during an interview is on-the-record unless the comment is granted off-the-record status

by the writer. Professional etiquette requires you to keep your word only if you've actually given it. On

the other hand, you are required to keep your word if you agree not to print an interviewee's information

prior to being told that information.

Successful bargaining requires understanding how quotations can be restricted. Typically, quotation

agreements can be divided into five categories.

The first category is for-direct-quotation. Here, whatever the subject tells you can be used as a direct

quote, a partial quote or an indirect quote. Here's an example of a direct quotation.

Remarks made during most personal and telephone interviews, of course, are always on-the-record and

for-direct-quotation, unless the subject advises you otherwise prior to making the remark.

Proceeding along a continuum of progressively less acceptable restrictions, the next category is not-for-

direct-quotation. Here, you can identify the source and repeat the quote, but not within quotation marks.

The purpose of this technique is largely to allow the source to claim having been misquoted if he or she is

in hot water after the interview appears. Even though politicians enjoy using this approach, you should

avoid it because it casts a shadow on your credibility should the subject deny having made the statement?

Not-for-attribution comes next. The lack of attribution forces you to connect a quote to a generalized

source.

This kind of attribution--sometimes called background attribution--obviously has less credibility than a

direct quotation or even a not-for-direct-quotation statement.

Deep background often refers to information given to a writer on the basis that it not be attributed to the

source in any way. Usually the writer can get another source to corroborate the background information

and then can attribute that information to the new source. Deep background is frequently used in news

analysis articles.

The last, and worst, category is, of course, off-the-record, where you promise not to reveal either the

information or the source.

Much of this is a tempest in a teapot because often interviewees want to restrict information in which you

have little interest: They pledge you to secrecy and then tell you something that is irrelevant to the story.

Succinctly, the plan is to assume anything you're told in an interview is for-direct-quotation unless you

agree to an exception. If you agree to an exception, try to move the request along the continuum from off-

the-record to at least not-for-direct-quotation or at worst not-for-attribution. Agreeing to hear important

information on an off-the-record basis is a waste of your time.

In addition to off-the-record requests, some subjects demand to see their quotations or even the entire

story as a condition of the interview. Their requests are usually rejected.

Magazine writers and editors sometimes verify quotations by reading key selections to a source by

telephone. Most newspaper feature writers refuse all such requests. A lot of people ask to see the piece

and you always have to say, `No.'

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

Gathering material

Note-taking Tips.

Researchers say that even if you're a careful listener, you will miss 50 percent of what a speaker--in this

case, an interviewee--has to say. And if you don't record that information quickly, you will lose 50

percent of what you did hear. For that reason, note taking is critical unless you routinely depend on tape

recorders.

First, use the correct tools. Writers have found that taking notes on standard paper slows down writing.

Use a reporter's notepad, which typically is about four inches wide by eight inches long.

Most newspaper and magazine writers don't know shorthand. However, most writers do use some form of

self-taught shorthand, which is another tool. At its simplest, that shorthand involves using numbers for

words ("4" instead of "four") and dropping articles (such as "the") and other non-essential words. Still,

note taking in this manner is an inexact art and depends on the writer's getting to a terminal or computer

as quickly as possible to reconstruct the language of the interviewee. So--assuming you're not using a

tape recorder and you don't know true shorthand--don't try to take down every word. Instead, rely on

good notes for direct and partial quotations and on your memory to reconstruct the gist of what the subject

said in indirect quotation.

An especially fast-talking interviewee may cause you to fall far behind in note taking, despite your

reporter's notepad, self-taught shorthand and excellent memory. If that happens, consider asking your

speeding subject to slow down.

Finally, be as inconspicuous as possible about your note taking. Keep your notes out of the line of sight of

the interviewee. In fact, avoid letting the subject even see when you've stopped writing. This gives you

the option of ignoring inane comments while taking copious notes of important ones.

Tape recorder techniques.

To tape or not to tape, that is the question!

Most newspaper reporters facing daily deadlines seldom use recorders. Replaying and transcribing

material takes too much time, they say.

On the other hand, magazine writers--especially freelance writers--use tape recorders frequently. So

does newspaper feature writers who don't face short deadlines?

While there is disagreement among journalists about the value of recorders, all agree that if you use a tape

recorder, you should use a good one.

The ideal machine, which should be small so that it won't distract the interviewee, ought to have a built-in

microphone with an automatic gain control. The built-in mike will lessen the obtrusiveness of the

machine; the gain control will automatically adjust the recording level for varying conditions. Recording

should be indicated by a tiny light so you can check whether the machine is working properly. All are

common features.

The machine also should have a tape counter and an audible forward cue so that you can locate specific

segments of the tape later. The counter reading can be noted during the interview so you can later find the

general location of important quotations, and the cue will allow you to play the tape back at faster than

normal speed to pinpoint those quotations quickly. These are common features, too.

An end-of-tape warning signal to let you know when you're out of tape, and an auto-reverse capability so

that the recorder will automatically record the second side of the tape, are important but less common

features. So is a voice-activated recording system, which means the machine will record only when

someone is talking, thus saying tape.

Even with all of this technology, it's a good idea to take notes as though the recorder did not exist. This

will protect you in case the recorder fails and will also provide a table of contents for the tape.

Secondly, a tape recorder frees you to really listen to the other person and gauge interaction with them.

You can look at them. They can look at you. They're not looking at the top of your head. That is

disconcerting. The tape recorder gives the interviewer a chance to really respond to what the interviewee

is saying, to think about it. Plus the fact that when you get back and have to listen to all of this again, it's

really very helpful because you hear things you didn't hear at first, and inflections, pauses.

Feature and Column Writing MCM 514

Some reporters argue against using tape recorders. They can malfunction, tapes take time to transcribe,

and taping encourages laziness on the part of the reporter. All of these points are worth considering. But

tape recorders can be tested right before and during an interview.

Closing the session

If you've done a good job interviewing your subject, closing the session may be difficult because the

subject, who probably has enjoyed the experience immensely, will want to prolong the interview. You

must persuade him or her that the time has come to end the interview.

The best way to close the interview is to explain that the time you've asked for has long been up and you

have another appointment. You should also add that you may have other questions (and the chances are

good that, indeed, you will) and you would like to be able to telephone. The interviewee will usually be

willing to continue the relationship and will probably insist that you call if you have the slightest

question. With that, you should smile, thank the interviewee and leave.

Writing the interview

Feature and magazine articles usually require description. Description requires keen observation, the third

component of reporting. Sometimes keen observation requires participation.

There are numerous approaches to describing people, places and events. What works in describing people

is usually also effective for describing places and events.

Write immediately after, otherwise you may lose information after determine the kind of interview you

had conducted. Hence you must include only the pertinent content, by avoiding the obvious and the

stereotype information. One must use your originality and subject to determine the best order of

information.

Begin with an appropriated lead, which must interest your reader.

Bridge the gaps carefully by re-reading whatever you have written.

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