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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD

<< METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):Census Taking
ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES >>
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Lesson 07
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
What is Economic Anthropology?
Economic Anthropology involves examining how different cultures and societies produce, distribute and
consume the things they need to survive. All cultures need to be able to manage these processes, in
accordance with their given circumstances, to ensure the survival of their people.
Differentiating Economics from Economic Anthropology
While economists assume that people are preoccupied by the need to maximize profits and this is the basic
impulse due to which they produce goods and services. Economic anthropologists do not believe profit
maximization is equally important for all cultures. They point out that there are several other processes
besides profit maximization, which exist in different cultures of the world by the allocation (distribution) of
resources need to produce goods and services, and the distribution of the goods and services takes place.
For example, these economic anthropologists look at how different cultures distribute land, which is an
important resource needed for production of agricultural goods, and have noticed that different cultures
have different ways in which this distribution takes place.
However, economic anthropologists realize that like economists they too must answer some basic questions
concerning basic economic needs of human beings, which all cultures around the world face, given that
some human needs are universal and must be met no matter what type of culture people belong to.
Economic Universals
Economic anthropologists have to consider the following economic universals, which are of vital
importance to human beings, no matter what their cultural systems are like:
a)
Regulation of Resources: How land, water and other natural resources (like minerals) are
controlled and allocated
b)
Production: How material resources (sugarcane) are converted into usable commodities (sugar)
c)
Exchange: How the commodities, once produced, are distributed among the people of a society
Examining the Issue of Land Rights
Free access to land is found in environments where water and pasturage is scarce. Land rights are more
rigidly controlled among horticulturalists and agriculturalists than among foragers and pastoralists.
Division of Labor
Durkheim (the famous sociologist, responsible for establishing this branch of study in the early twentieth
century) had distinguished between two types of societies, those based on mechanical solidarity and others
based on organic solidarity.
Societies with a minimum specialization of labor are held together by mechanical solidarity, based on
commonality of interest. In these societies, people are more self-reliant, therefore, they need other people to
a lesser degree than people in societies where people focus on production of a very specific good or service
and then rely on others to provide them other necessities of life in exchange for their specialized product.
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Highly specialized societies are held together by organic solidarity, based on mutual interdependence. Such
societies emphasize the need for specialization and people depend on other people in order to obtain the
different things that they need.
Gender Roles and Age Specialization
Generally, many cultures allocate specific responsibilities on the basis of age and gender. Ole people and
those very young are given lighter tasks in most cases, where circumstances permit (in cases of extreme
poverty, child labor can also take place).
Similarly, women are usually allocated tasks which allow them to maintain flexible timings so that they can
look after their homes as well. There are exceptions to this rule however, since many educated women do
work as long as men, often leaving their children to the care of day centers.
In many countries around the world, the process of urbanization has led men to move away to the cities in
order to earn more cash, often leaving women behind to undertake agricultural work, which was previously
done by men. Circumstances also compel poor women to take on heavy work burdens, like their men folk,
to ensure the survival of their families.
Moreover, the same type of activity (weaving) may be associated with the opposite gender in different
cultures; the division of labor by gender is seen as being arbitrary.
Is Nepotism Always Bad?
In many societies people relate to each other based on the principle of particularism (family and kinship
ties) rather than on universalistic terms (using standardized exams, interviews).
Nepotism is not necessarily a sign of corruption, since consideration of ground realities like kinship ties can
often help determine how people will adjust to specific work environments.
Useful Terms
Allocation of resources: the distribution of resources.
Barter: the direct exchange of commodities between people that does not involve a standardized currency.
Division of Labor: the set of rules found in all societies dictating how the day to day tasks are assigned to
the various members of a society.
Reciprocity: the practice of giving a gift with an expected return.
Globalization: the world wide process dating back to the demise of the Berlin wall, which involves a
revolution in information technology, opening of markets, and the privatization of social services.
Labor specialization: a form of having command over one activity.
Suggested Readings
Students are advised to read the following chapters to develop a better understanding of the various
principals highlighted in this hand-out:
Chapter 8 in `Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective' by Ferrarro and/or Chapter 17 in `Anthropology' by
Ember and Pergrine
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Introduction to Cultural Anthropology ­ SOC401
VU
Internet Resources
In addition to reading from the textbook, please visit the following website for this lecture:
Economic Anthropology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_anthropology
Use the hyperlinks on the above website to read up on the following aspects of Economic Anthropology
for today's lecture:
Anthropological theories of value
The Anthropological view of Wealth
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Table of Contents:
  1. WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?:Cultural Anthropology, Internet Resources
  2. THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THE APPLICATION OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
  3. MAJOR THEORIES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Diffusionism
  4. GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORY (continued):Post Modernism
  5. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Comments on Fieldwork
  6. METHODS IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):Census Taking
  7. COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
  8. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY (continued):THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES
  9. FOCUSING ON LANGUAGE:Languages of the World, Structure of Language
  10. FOCUS ON LANGUAGE (continued):Levels of Complexity, Cultural Emphasis
  11. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURES:Optimal Foraging, Suggested Readings
  12. FOOD AND CULTURE (continued):Food Collectors, Food Production
  13. OBTAINING FOOD IN DIFFERENT CULTURE (continued):Pastoralism, Agriculture
  14. RELEVANCE OF KINSHIP AND DESCENT:Kinship Criteria, Rules of Descent
  15. KINSHIP AND DESCENT (continued):Tracing Descent, Primary Kinship Systems
  16. THE ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE:Economic Aspect of Marriage
  17. ROLE OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN CULTURE (continued):Family Structures
  18. GENDER AND CULTURE:Gender Stratification, Suggested Readings
  19. GENDER ROLES IN CULTURE (continued):Women Employment, Feminization of Poverty
  20. STRATIFICATION AND CULTURE:Social Ranking, Dimensions of Inequality
  21. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION (continued):The Functionalists, Conflict Theorists
  22. CULTURE AND CHANGE:Inventions, Diffusion, Donor, Conventional
  23. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Cultural Interrelations, Reaction to Change
  24. CULTURE AND CHANGE (continued):Planned Change, Globalization
  25. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION:Bands, Tribal Organizations, Chiefdoms
  26. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):State Systems, Nation-States
  27. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION (continued):Social Norms, Informal Mechanisms
  28. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE:Emotional Development, Psychological Universals
  29. PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE (continued):Origin of Customs, Personality Types
  30. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE:Ideology in Everyday Life, Hegemony
  31. IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE (Continued):Political ideologies, Economic Ideology
  32. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES:Variation in Associations, Age Sets
  33. ASSOCIATIONS, CULTURES AND SOCIETIES (continued):Formation of Associations
  34. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE:Similarity in Human Adaptations
  35. RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE (continued):Inter-group Relations
  36. CULTURE AND BELIEFS:Social Function of Religion, Politics and Beliefs
  37. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE:Changing Definitions of Local Knowledge
  38. LOCAL OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (continued):The Need for Caution
  39. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT:Influence of Development Notions
  40. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Contentions in Development
  41. ANTHROPOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT (Continued):Operational
  42. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART:Relevance of Art, Art and Politics
  43. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND ART (continued):Art as a Status Symbol
  44. ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGY:Ethical Condemnation, Orientalism
  45. RELEVANCE OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:Ensuring Cultural Survival