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PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH FEMALES’ REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)
VU
Lecture 39
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH FEMALES' REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Problems Associated With Females' Reproductive Health
As said earlier, more females than males go for medical advice and help. Their frequent consultation with the
physician is besides their visits for pregnancy related advice and care. One probable reason for this behavior is
that women are endowed with a complex reproductive system. The structure and the functions of female
reproductive system are complex and vulnerable to a variety of conditions. In our discussion of this subject we
will focus upon a few of such problems that may affect a women's physical or psychological well-being.
We will be discussing the following problems:
a)  Dysmenorrhea
b)  Pre-menstrual syndrome
c)  Menopause
The main objectives of our discussion of these problems are:
i.
To create an awareness about the very existence of these problems
ii.
Besides, we want to make the point that it is not necessary that all women experience these problems.
Many women never experience any of these symptoms.
iii.
Although there are certain stereotypes associated with females' reproductive health, one must realize
that part of these problems are physical and part psychological.
iv.
Most importantly, these problems are manageable.
Dysmenorrhoea
Dysmenorrhoea is pain along with cramping of the uterine musculature accompanying the menstrual period. In
some females the pain can be very severe and debilitating. Whereas many women do not experience such a
condition. There are two types of Dysmenorrhoea:
i.
Primary
ii.
Secondary
Primary Dysmenorrhoea
This type occurs without any causal disease. It usually begins in the teens and disappears after child birth.
Secondary Dysmenorrhoea
This type is caused by some primary disease process. The symptoms of Dysmenorrhoea are related to the
primary condition e.g. endometriosis.
Etiology/Causes
Physical cause: Prostaglandins
Biologically active ad naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, prostaglandins, have been found to be related
with Dysmenorrhoea. Prostaglandins have potent actions on blood cells, smooth muscles, fat cells and nerve
tissues.
Psychological causes
Heightened stress level, especially negative stress has been found to be associated with Dysmenorrhoea.
Treatment
Physical treatment:
Prostaglandin Inhibitors e.g. ibuprofen, naproxen sodium and others. Regular exercise, especially aerobic
exercise has been found to be very helpful in symptom relief as well as symptom control.
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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)
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Psychological interventions:
Relaxation exercises have been known to help. If positive imagery is added, the treatment becomes more
effective.
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
Commonly known as PMS, refers to the symptoms experienced by many females prior to the monthly period.
The symptoms usually occur around 10 days prior to the beginning of the period. The common symptoms
include depression, irritability, water retention, fatigue, and/or lethargy.
Etiology:
Physiological Explanation:
A number of physiological explanations are available about PMS. However most researchers, and medical
professionals believe in the effect of insufficient progesterone, or insufficient progesterone relative to estrogen,
or a high estrogen-progesterone ratio.
Psychological Explanation:
Psychological theories primarily focus upon a state of arousal along with an appraisal of one's inner state as
negative or positive. Some theories extend the same approach even further.
These theories propose that the cultural stereotypes of the premenstrual women as being depressed and
irritable, affect which environmental or physiological cues are attended to when attaching a label to increased
arousal (Koeske, 1980).
The treatment of PMS
A number of treatments have been found to be effective in relieving the symptoms of PMS. The treatments
include medical and psychological treatments as well as lifestyle changes.
Medical Treatment
Physicians, who strongly believe that PMS is caused by low levels of progesterone, recommend progesterone
therapy (Dalton, 1964). Diuretics are also recommended in many cases (Appleby, 1960). Bromocriptine, that
inhibits prolactin release, has also been found effective (Steiner et al., 1984). Medicines increasing the level of
Serotonin have been recommended by some (Harrison et al., 1984). Some have found prostaglandin inhibitors
to be effective (Jakubowicz et al., 1984). The use of evening primrose oil is also helpful (Horrobin, and Phil,
1983).
Psychological Treatment
The following interventions have been found to be effective:
_ Relaxation exercises with imagery
_ Cognitive therapy for changing appraisal of situation
_ Role modeling through, video recordings of symptom free females
Lifestyle changes
_ Regular Exercise, especially aerobic exercise, has been found to be effective.
_ Healthy dietary habits are recommended e.g. reduced dairy intake.
_ The PMS sufferers are advised to stop or restrict the use of refined sugar. They are recommended to
acquire the sugar required by the body through complex carbohydrates, cereals etc.
_ Multivitamins are also helpful.
Menopause
Menopause is a condition, or change that every women beyond the age of 45-55 years experiences. Menopause
refers to the cessation of menstruation. In turn it means the end of fertility. At menopause ovulation stops
permanently. The average age of menopause is about 51 years; in 4 out of 5 women menopause takes place
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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)
VU
between 45 and 55 years (Avis, 1999; Messill, and Verbrugge, 1999). Some women may have this experience as
early as in their thirties, whereas some as late as in their sixties.
Symptoms of Menopause
Besides being a major life change with reference to fertility, menopause is considered a significant period
because of the accompanying symptoms. Little or no physical discomfort is experienced by most women
during perimenopausal phase (NIA, 1993).
Perimenopausal or climacteric, or "change in life", refers to the period during which the changes that lead to
menopause are experienced. This period may be stretched over many years, beginning usually in the 30s. The
commonly known symptoms include:
_ Hot flashes or hot flushes
_ Increased body weight
_ Headaches
_ Profuse sweating
_ Sleep problems/insomnia
_ Depression
_ Dizziness
_ Sensation of cold in hands and feet
_ Irritability, and arthrosclerosis, among many others
_ Osteoporosis (brittle bones)
The most common symptoms are hot flashes i.e., sudden sensations of heat that flash through the body due to
expansion and contraction of blood vessels. Many women do not experience these at all, and many have these
continually (Avis, 1999). There are many diverse views about these symptoms. Some viewpoints see these
symptoms as purely psychological in nature, resulting from the menopausal women's perception of her
changed physical ability.
Others regard these symptoms as clearly physical in nature, resulting from hormonal changes. A third view
point considers these symptoms as resulting form both psychological and physical factors.
However what needs to be kept in mind is the fact that not all women experience these symptoms, and not all
women experience the same intensity and frequency of these symptoms if they experience any. The supporters
of the psychological viewpoint use this fact as their main supporting argument. They propose that had the
menopausal symptoms been purely physical in nature, then all women would have experienced the same
symptoms.
The Sociopsychological approach
According to this approach, two factors determine the experience of menopause:
a)  The woman's perception of a major life change, and the end to fertility
b)  The societal stereotypes about menopause. This includes especially the attitudes, awareness, and
behavior of the husband and near relatives.
If the research on menopause is scrutinized, it will show that "so-called menopausal syndrome may be related
more to personal characteristics or past experiences than to menopause per se" (Avis, 1999, P. 129).
At the same time cultural and societal factors play a very important role. The typical menopausal symptoms are
experienced more, and felt more seriously, in societies (e.g. western societies) where a women feels she is
important primarily because of her body. Few problems are associated with menopause in societies and
cultures where social, religious, or political power is acquired by older women after menopause (Avis, 1999;
Treatment of Menopausal Symptoms
A number of treatments have been found effective in alleviating, controlling, and managing symptoms of
menopause. Some of the more commonly used ones are mentioned here:
1. Hormone Replacement Therapy:
Estrogen alone, or in combination with progesterone is used.
2. Evening Primrose Oil:
Of the herbal remedies, evening primrose oil is claimed to have very positive effects.
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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)
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3. Exercise:
Regular aerobic exercise helps prevent, control and alleviate the symptoms.
4. Cognitive Therapy:
Cognitive therapy for menopausal woman focuses upon the wrong perceptions about the end of fertility.
The menopausal women are made to realize that this is an age of more freedom when they are free of
children's responsibilities, have more money, more leisure time, and more time for using their creative or
intellectual potentials.
What Needs To Be Done???
·  Health education for females
·  Changes and additions in school curriculum pertaining to reproductive health.
·  Encouraging girls to express their health concerns with mothers, teachers, or with health professionals.
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION:Common misconception, Some questions to ponder
  2. FEMINIST MOVEMENT:Forms or Varieties of Feminism, First wave feminists
  3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:Functionalism, Psychoanalytic Psychology:
  4. Gender- related Research:Andocentricity, Overgeneralizing, Gender Blindness
  5. RESEARCH METHODS FOR GENDER ISSUES:The Procedure of Content Analysis
  6. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:Limitations Of Quantitative Research
  7. BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENDERSHormones and Chromosomes
  8. BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GENDERS: HORMONES AND NERVOUS SYSTEM
  9. THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT:The Biological Approach,
  10. THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT (2):The Behavioral Approach
  11. THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT (3):The Cognitive Approach
  12. THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT (3):Psychoanalytic Feminism
  13. OTHER APPROACHES:The Humanistic Approach, Cultural Influences
  14. GENDER TYPING AND STEREOTYPING:Development of sex-typing
  15. GENDER STEREOTYPES:Some commonly held Gender Stereotypes
  16. Developmental Stages of Gender Stereotypes:Psychoanalytic Approach, Hostile sexism
  17. CULTURAL INFLUENCE & GENDER ROLES:Arapesh, Mundugumor
  18. DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER ROLE IDENTIFICATION:Gender Role Preference
  19. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY:GENDER DIFFERENCES IN BULLYING
  20. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY:GENDER, AFFILIATION AND FRIENDSHIP
  21. COGNITIVE DIFFERENCES:Gender Differences in I.Q, Gender and Verbal Ability
  22. GENDER AND MEDIA:Print Media and Portrayal of Genders
  23. GENDER AND EMOTION:The components of Emotions
  24. GENDER, EMOTION, & MOTIVATION:Affiliation, Love, Jealousy
  25. GENDER AND EDUCATION:Impact of Educational Deprivation
  26. GENDER, WORK AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT:Informal Work
  27. GENDER, WORK AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT (2):Glass-Ceiling Effect
  28. GENDER, WORK & RELATED ISSUES:Sexual Harassment at Workplace
  29. GENDER AND VIOLENCE:Domestic Violence, Patriarchal terrorism
  30. GENDER AND HEALTH:The Significance of Women’s Health
  31. GENDER, HEALTH, AND AGING:Genetic Protection, Behavioral Factors
  32. GENDER, HEALTH, AND AGING:Physiological /Biological Effects, Changes in Appearance
  33. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN AGING:Marriage and Loneliness, Empty Nest Syndrome
  34. GENDER AND HEALTH PROMOTING BEHAVIORS:Fitness and Exercise
  35. GENDER AND HEALTH PROMOTING BEHAVIOR:The Classic Alameda County Study
  36. GENDER AND HEART DISEASE:Angina Pectoris, The Risk factors in CHD
  37. GENDER AND CANCER:The Trend of Mortality Rates from Cancer
  38. GENDER AND HIV/AIDS:Symptoms of AIDS, Mode of Transmission
  39. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH FEMALES’ REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
  40. OBESITY AND WEIGHT CONTROL:Consequences of Obesity, Eating Disorders
  41. GENDER AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:Gender, Stress and Coping
  42. GENDER AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:The Diagnostic Criteria
  43. GENDER AND PSYCHOTHERAPY:Traditional Versus Feminist Theory
  44. FEMINIST THERAPY:Changes targeted at societal level
  45. COURSE REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF NEW AVENUES FOR RESEARCH IN GENDER ISSUES