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ATTITUDE CHANGE (CONTINUE……….):Attitudinal Inoculation, Audience Variables

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Social Psychology (PSY403)
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Lesson 24
ATTITUDE CHANGE (CONTINUE..........)
Aims
Introduce the concept of attitude change
Objectives
Describe content (communication) and audience (target) variables that influence the effectiveness of
persuasive messages
Describe central and peripheral routes of persuasion and their effect on attitude strength.
Message variables: What is the content?
In this section we will study that what makes a message persuasive in its own right independent of the
source. Following are a few important points in this reference:
Facts versus vivid images
Fear
Humor
The use of one-sided vs. two-sided arrangements
Repetition
Facts vs. Vividness images
Advertisers can use both evidence-based and vivid graphic messages to convince viewers to follow a
certain course of action.
Evidence based message
Example: "Last year 1100 students died with drug abuse"
Vividness-based appeal
Example: "Not everyone dies with drug use" (with graphic message of disturbed consequences)
Evidence-based appeals are more persuasive. However, evidence is more persuasive when it is from a
credible source.
Persuasive power can be increased if evidence is combined with vivid imagery (Gonzales et al. 1988)
Vivid images prime relevant information in memory (Sherman et al., 1990)
Vividness can also undermine the persuasiveness of a message
Study of Frey & Eagly (1993):
Presentation of vivid or nonvivid messages to undergraduate students
Two conditions: High (instruction given to pay attention to some particular aspect) and low attentional
(no instructions, just incidental presentation) constraints were created
With high attentional condition both techniques were equally effective, while non vivid messages were
more persuasive when incidentally presented.
Vivid elements interfere with the full comprehension of the persuasive message.
This cognitive "Wandering off" is most likely when vivid elements are incongruent with the theme of
message (Smith & Shaffer, 2000). Interference occurs when people's attention is not contained as vivid
elements may catch attention instead of message
Does fear appeal persuasion?
"There are two levers for moving man ­ interest and fear" (Napolean Bonaparte, French General and
Emperor in 18th century.)
·
Advertisements, organizations and people often try to invoke fear in order to persuade. For
example, antismoke ads state, `nicotine habits will shorten life expectancy'. Insurance agents use
fear element by suggesting to people, `your family will be thrown out of home after your death' or
try to create apprehensions about daughter's marriage, or make `own home appeals'. Similarly,
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George W.Bush created fear in American nation by indicating that the country will be attacked
again by the terrorists. However, too much fear can sometime be debilitating which can be
counterproductive
·
Can be explained by the Protection motivation theory (Rogers et al., 1997) which states that fear
induces motivation to protect the self..
Conditions under which fear appeals can be effective
First 2 of the following are about changing attitude, whereas the last two are to ensure personal capability
(similar to perceived behaviour in `Control theory of planned behaviour').
The target of the message is convinced that the dangers mentioned are serious
The target is convinced that the dangers are quite probable
The target is convinced that the recommendations to avoid the danger will be effective
The target believes that s/he can competently take the action
Does Humour increase attention to a message?
About 40% of all advertisements employ humour (Unger, 1996)
Public relation consultants recommend punching up speeches with humorous anecdotes (Weinberger
& Campbell, 1991). They also believe that humour is an effective persuader that is why they regularly
recommend it.
Increases people's attention than serious-sounding communication (Duncan & Nelson, 1985) as
people are more likely to listen to someone who is trying to make them laugh or smile.
Such persuaders tend to enhance their likability (Gruner, 1985)
Humour must be relevant to the content in order not to be disruptive. Sometimes the joke may be so
funny that people may remember it and not the actual message. It is generally believed that: Relevant
humour ----> central route, while irrelevant humour ----> peripheral route (Smith et al., 1994)
One-sided vs. two-sided messages
One vs. Two-sided appeals
Working in the USA Army Information and Education
Department, Hovland and collegues (1949) after the
surrender of Nazi Germany wanted to convince the
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USA soldiers that the war in pacific against Japan will
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continue. Their used both kinds of messages to
Initally
convince the soldiers about this. Their research
agreed
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showed that messages can be more credible if it also
Initially
acknowledges opposing arguments. It also showed that
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opposed
the two-sided messages are effective if people initially
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do not agree with the message. However, later
research found that two-sided message is not only
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effective with those who initially disagreed but who
are either well informed or who are gong to be
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exposed to opposing viewpoints in future. In these
One-sided
Two-sided
circumstances, mentioning the opposition's views
indicates that you are an objective and fair-minded
person.
Attitudinal Inoculation
A weak version of an opposing argument can help `stimulate defences' against a future opposing
argument
"Immunizing somebody against change isn't always very healthy for the reason that people do have to
be open to outside influences" (McGuire, 1999)
Does Repetition increases persuasion power?
Mere exposure effect
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Repetition has the opposite effect on the stimuli that are initially perceived as negative (Cacioppo &
Petty, 1989). Repetition seems to increase liking for stimuli that are initially perceived as neutral but has
the opposite effect on the stimuli that are initially perceived as negative.
Repetition increases liking only up to a point.
Repetition with variation can overcome wear-out effect (Pratkanis & Aronson, 1992).
Audience Variables
Good mood
Involvement
Individual differences
Audience variables: Good mood generally fosters persuasion
Evidence about greater attitude change among people eating at a snack shop (Janis et al., 1965) and
listening pleasant music (Milliman, 1986) indicate that good mood generally fosters persuasion.
Possible Explanations:
Classical conditioning
Cognitive-response approach: The feeling-as-information explanation
People who are in a positive mood are more susceptible to persuasion.
This approach suggests that people in positive mood are less likely to engage in extensive
processing of the presented arguments (Ruder & Bless, 2003).
Negative moods signal something `wrong' with environment which triggers greater processing to
find out what (Bohner et al., 1992), and what nnecessary actions are required. On the other hand,
happy people think that everything is fine. Moreover they want to maintain their happy mood.
Generally happy people use peripheral route, unhappy use the central route. Hence, happy people
are more susceptible to weak cues like attractiveness.
Involvement
Both of the following types of involvements have different effect on persuasion.
Issue involvement:
This involvement indicates that the outcome of argument has important consequences for the self ­ hence it
will take a central route.
Impression-relevant involvement:
In this kind of involvement, the person usually thinks that his or her response may be scrutinised by
others and may lead to social approval/ disapproval. This kind of involvement takes a peripheral route.
Those attitudes which become associated with the self are highly resistant to change
If matter is personally relevant, audience will be more likely to be persuaded by well-reasoned arguments.
On the other hand, if they are concerned that how they will be judged then they will be persuaded by a
speaker who is popular and attractive ­ socially acceptable. The later kind of involvement is impression-
relevant and takes a peripheral route.
Individual differences
Need for cognition refers to the degree to which someone prefers to engage in effortful thought. High NFC
takes a central route. People who have high NFC, they not only think that the matter is important to the self,
but they have a desire for cognitive challenges. People who have a low NFC, they usually take mental
shortcuts and peripheral route, therefore their attitude is easy to change
Age and life stage:
Impressionable years: According to Krosnick and Alwin (1989), the heightened susceptibility
of young people to persuasion is caused by their first time exposure to social and political issues
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Life
stance hypothesis (Visser & Krosnick, 1998): With more sophisticated methodology and
statistical approaches, Visser and Krosnick conducted 6 survey studies of more than 8500
participants. They measured attitude change toward such social and political issues like international
affairs, crime, race, etc. They indicated that attitude change is greater in both younger and elderly
due to greater role transitions. Middle-aged adults are more resistant to attitude change. Strength of
attitude is determined by information, knowledge and involvement. Attitude information and
perceived knowledge rises in early adulthood and peaks around 50, and declines after 65. As people
in adult years exhibit strong attitudes, so they are resistant to change.
Central vs. peripheral processing of perceived messages
Routes to persuasion
Most likely to occur when
Effect on attitude
Strong
Central Route:
Message personally
Resistant to
Careful scrutiny of the
relevant
counterarguments
available information to
High NFC
Predictive of behaviour
determine its merits
Neutral. mood
Communicator
speaks  at  normal
rate
Weak
Peripheral Route:
Message irrelevant
Susceptible to
Relying on incidental cues and
Low in NFC
counterarguments
simple rule of thumb like
Positive mood
Not predictive of
attractiveness or length
Communicator
behaviour
speaks rapidly
Reading
·  Franzoi, S. (2003). Social Psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 7.
Other Readings
·  Lord, C.G. (1997). Social Psychology. Orlando: Harcourt Brace and Company.
·  David G. Myers, D. G. (2002). Social Psychology (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Readings, Main Elements of Definitions
  2. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Social Psychology and Sociology
  3. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Scientific Method
  4. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:Evaluate Ethics
  5. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH PROCESS, DESIGNS AND METHODS (CONTINUED)
  6. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
  7. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CORRELATIONAL METHOD:
  8. CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
  9. THE SELF:Meta Analysis, THE INTERNET, BRAIN-IMAGING TECHNIQUES
  10. THE SELF (CONTINUED):Development of Self awareness, SELF REGULATION
  11. THE SELF (CONTINUE…….):Journal Activity, POSSIBLE HISTORICAL EFFECTS
  12. THE SELF (CONTINUE……….):SELF-SCHEMAS, SELF-COMPLEXITY
  13. PERSON PERCEPTION:Impression Formation, Facial Expressions
  14. PERSON PERCEPTION (CONTINUE…..):GENDER SOCIALIZATION, Integrating Impressions
  15. PERSON PERCEPTION: WHEN PERSON PERCEPTION IS MOST CHALLENGING
  16. ATTRIBUTION:The locus of causality, Stability & Controllability
  17. ATTRIBUTION ERRORS:Biases in Attribution, Cultural differences
  18. SOCIAL COGNITION:We are categorizing creatures, Developing Schemas
  19. SOCIAL COGNITION (CONTINUE…….):Counterfactual Thinking, Confirmation bias
  20. ATTITUDES:Affective component, Behavioral component, Cognitive component
  21. ATTITUDE FORMATION:Classical conditioning, Subliminal conditioning
  22. ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR:Theory of planned behavior, Attitude strength
  23. ATTITUDE CHANGE:Factors affecting dissonance, Likeability
  24. ATTITUDE CHANGE (CONTINUE……….):Attitudinal Inoculation, Audience Variables
  25. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION:Activity on Cognitive Dissonance, Categorization
  26. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION (CONTINUE……….):Religion, Stereotype threat
  27. REDUCING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION:The contact hypothesis
  28. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION:Reasons for affiliation, Theory of Social exchange
  29. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION (CONTINUE……..):Physical attractiveness
  30. INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS:Applied Social Psychology Lab
  31. SOCIAL INFLUENCE:Attachment styles & Friendship, SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
  32. SOCIAL INFLUENCE (CONTINE………):Normative influence, Informational influence
  33. SOCIAL INFLUENCE (CONTINUE……):Crimes of Obedience, Predictions
  34. AGGRESSION:Identifying Aggression, Instrumental aggression
  35. AGGRESSION (CONTINUE……):The Cognitive-Neo-associationist Model
  36. REDUCING AGGRESSION:Punishment, Incompatible response strategy
  37. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR:Types of Helping, Reciprocal helping, Norm of responsibility
  38. PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE………):Bystander Intervention, Diffusion of responsibility
  39. GROUP BEHAVIOR:Applied Social Psychology Lab, Basic Features of Groups
  40. GROUP BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE…………):Social Loafing, Deindividuation
  41. up Decision GROUP BEHAVIOR (CONTINUE……….):GroProcess, Group Polarization
  42. INTERPERSONAL POWER: LEADERSHIP, The Situational Perspective, Information power
  43. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN COURT
  44. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN CLINIC
  45. FINAL REVIEW:Social Psychology and related fields, History, Social cognition