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Social
Psychology (PSY403)
VU
Lesson
24
ATTITUDE
CHANGE (CONTINUE..........)
Aims
Introduce
the concept of attitude
change
Objectives
Describe
content (communication) and audience
(target) variables that
influence the effectiveness of
persuasive
messages
Describe
central and peripheral routes of
persuasion and their effect on
attitude strength.
Message
variables: What is the
content?
In
this section we will study
that what makes a message
persuasive in its own right
independent of the
source.
Following are a few
important points in this
reference:
Facts
versus vivid images
Fear
Humor
The
use of one-sided vs. two-sided
arrangements
Repetition
Facts
vs. Vividness
images
Advertisers
can use both evidence-based
and vivid graphic messages to
convince viewers to follow
a
certain
course of action.
Evidence
based message
Example:
"Last year 1100 students
died with drug
abuse"
Vividness-based
appeal
Example:
"Not everyone dies with
drug use" (with
graphic message of disturbed
consequences)
Evidence-based
appeals are more persuasive.
However, evidence is more persuasive when
it is from a
credible
source.
Persuasive
power can be increased if evidence is
combined with vivid imagery
(Gonzales et al. 1988)
Vivid
images prime relevant
information in memory (Sherman et
al., 1990)
Vividness
can also undermine the
persuasiveness of a
message
Study
of Frey & Eagly
(1993):
Presentation
of vivid or nonvivid messages to
undergraduate students
Two
conditions: High (instruction
given to pay attention to
some particular aspect) and
low attentional
(no
instructions, just incidental
presentation) constraints were created
With
high attentional condition
both techniques were equally effective,
while non vivid messages
were
more
persuasive when incidentally
presented.
Vivid
elements interfere with the
full comprehension of the persuasive
message.
This
cognitive "Wandering off" is
most likely when vivid
elements are incongruent
with the theme of
message
(Smith & Shaffer, 2000).
Interference occurs when
people's attention is not
contained as vivid
elements
may catch attention instead of
message
Does
fear appeal persuasion?
"There
are two levers for
moving man interest
and fear" (Napolean
Bonaparte, French General and
Emperor
in 18th century.)
·
Advertisements,
organizations and people
often try to invoke fear in
order to persuade.
For
example,
antismoke ads state, `nicotine habits
will shorten life expectancy'. Insurance
agents use
fear
element by suggesting to people, `your
family will be thrown out of
home after your death'
or
try
to create apprehensions about
daughter's marriage, or make `own
home appeals'.
Similarly,
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Social
Psychology (PSY403)
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George
W.Bush created
fear in American nation by
indicating that the country
will be attacked
again
by the terrorists. However, too much
fear can sometime be
debilitating which can
be
counterproductive
·
Can
be explained by the Protection motivation
theory (Rogers et al., 1997)
which states that
fear
induces
motivation to protect the
self..
Conditions
under which fear appeals can
be effective
First
2 of the following are about
changing attitude, whereas the last
two are to ensure personal
capability
(similar
to perceived behaviour in `Control
theory of planned
behaviour').
The
target of the message is convinced
that the dangers mentioned
are serious
The
target is convinced that the
dangers are quite
probable
The
target is convinced that the
recommendations to avoid the danger will be
effective
The
target believes that s/he
can competently take the
action
Does
Humour increase attention to a
message?
About
40% of all advertisements employ
humour (Unger, 1996)
Public
relation consultants recommend punching
up speeches with humorous anecdotes
(Weinberger
&
Campbell, 1991). They also
believe that humour is an
effective persuader that is
why they regularly
recommend
it.
Increases
people's attention than serious-sounding
communication (Duncan & Nelson,
1985) as
people
are more likely to listen to
someone who is trying to
make them laugh or
smile.
Such
persuaders tend to enhance
their likability (Gruner,
1985)
Humour
must be relevant to the content in order
not to be disruptive. Sometimes the
joke may be so
funny
that people may remember it
and not the actual message. It is
generally believed that:
Relevant
humour
----> central route,
while irrelevant humour
----> peripheral route
(Smith et al., 1994)
One-sided
vs. two-sided
messages
One
vs. Two-sided appeals
Working
in the USA Army Information and
Education
Department,
Hovland and collegues (1949) after
the
surrender
of Nazi Germany wanted to
convince the
60
USA
soldiers that the war in pacific against
Japan will
50
continue.
Their used both kinds of
messages to
Initally
convince
the soldiers about this. Their
research
agreed
40
showed
that messages can be more
credible if it also
Initially
acknowledges
opposing arguments. It also
showed that
30
opposed
the
two-sided messages are
effective if people
initially
20
do
not agree with the message.
However, later
research
found that two-sided message
is not only
10
effective
with those who initially
disagreed but who
are
either well informed or who
are gong to be
0
exposed
to opposing viewpoints in future. In
these
One-sided
Two-sided
circumstances,
mentioning the opposition's
views
indicates
that you are an objective
and fair-minded
person.
Attitudinal
Inoculation
A
weak version of an opposing argument
can help `stimulate defences' against a
future opposing
argument
"Immunizing
somebody against change isn't always
very healthy for the reason
that people do have to
be
open to outside influences" (McGuire,
1999)
Does
Repetition increases persuasion
power?
Mere
exposure effect
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Social
Psychology (PSY403)
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Repetition
has the opposite effect on the
stimuli that are initially
perceived as negative (Cacioppo
&
Petty,
1989). Repetition seems to
increase liking for stimuli
that are initially perceived
as neutral but has
the
opposite effect on the stimuli
that are initially perceived
as negative.
Repetition
increases liking only up to a
point.
Repetition
with variation can overcome
wear-out effect (Pratkanis & Aronson,
1992).
Audience
Variables
Good
mood
Involvement
Individual
differences
Audience
variables: Good
mood generally fosters
persuasion
Evidence
about greater attitude change among
people eating at a snack
shop (Janis et al., 1965)
and
listening
pleasant music (Milliman,
1986) indicate that good
mood generally fosters
persuasion.
Possible
Explanations:
Classical
conditioning
Cognitive-response
approach: The
feeling-as-information explanation
People
who are in a positive mood
are more susceptible to
persuasion.
This
approach suggests that people in
positive mood are less
likely to engage in
extensive
processing
of the presented arguments (Ruder &
Bless, 2003).
Negative
moods signal something `wrong'
with environment which
triggers greater processing to
find
out what (Bohner et al.,
1992), and what nnecessary
actions are required. On the other
hand,
happy
people think that everything
is fine. Moreover they want
to maintain their happy
mood.
Generally
happy people use peripheral
route, unhappy use the
central route. Hence, happy
people
are
more susceptible to weak cues like
attractiveness.
Involvement
Both
of the following types of involvements have
different effect on
persuasion.
Issue
involvement:
This
involvement indicates that the outcome of argument
has important consequences
for the self hence
it
will
take a central route.
Impression-relevant
involvement:
In
this kind of involvement, the
person usually thinks that
his or her response may be scrutinised
by
others
and may lead to social approval/
disapproval. This kind of
involvement takes a peripheral
route.
Those
attitudes which become
associated with the self are
highly resistant to
change
If
matter is personally relevant, audience
will be more likely to be persuaded by
well-reasoned arguments.
On
the other hand, if they are
concerned that how they
will be judged then they
will be persuaded by a
speaker
who is popular and
attractive socially acceptable.
The later kind of
involvement is impression-
relevant
and takes a peripheral
route.
Individual
differences
Need
for cognition refers to the degree to
which someone prefers to engage in
effortful thought. High
NFC
takes
a central route. People who have
high NFC, they not
only think that the matter is
important to the self,
but
they have a desire for
cognitive challenges. People who have a
low NFC, they usually
take mental
shortcuts
and peripheral route, therefore
their attitude is easy to
change
Age
and life stage:
Impressionable
years: According
to Krosnick
and Alwin (1989), the
heightened susceptibility
of
young people to persuasion is
caused by their first time
exposure to social and political
issues
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Social
Psychology (PSY403)
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Life
stance
hypothesis (Visser &
Krosnick, 1998): With more
sophisticated methodology and
statistical
approaches, Visser and Krosnick conducted
6 survey studies of more than
8500
participants.
They measured attitude
change toward such social and
political issues like
international
affairs,
crime, race, etc. They
indicated that attitude
change is greater in both younger and
elderly
due
to greater role transitions. Middle-aged
adults are more resistant to attitude
change. Strength of
attitude
is determined by information, knowledge
and involvement. Attitude information
and
perceived
knowledge rises in early
adulthood and peaks around
50, and declines after 65. As
people
in
adult years exhibit strong
attitudes, so they are
resistant to change.
Central
vs. peripheral processing of
perceived messages
Routes
to persuasion
Most
likely to occur when
Effect
on attitude
Strong
Central
Route:
Message
personally
Resistant
to
Careful
scrutiny of the
relevant
counterarguments
available
information to
High
NFC
Predictive
of behaviour
determine
its merits
Neutral.
mood
Communicator
speaks
at normal
rate
Weak
Peripheral
Route:
Message
irrelevant
Susceptible
to
Relying
on incidental cues
and
Low
in NFC
counterarguments
simple
rule of thumb like
Positive
mood
Not
predictive of
attractiveness
or length
Communicator
behaviour
speaks
rapidly
Reading
·
Franzoi,
S. (2003). Social
Psychology. Boston:
McGraw-Hill. Chapter 7.
Other
Readings
·
Lord,
C.G. (1997). Social
Psychology. Orlando:
Harcourt Brace and
Company.
·
David
G. Myers, D. G. (2002). Social
Psychology (7th ed.).
New York:
McGraw-Hill.
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