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THEORETICAL PARADIGMS:Salient Paradigms, Critical Evaluation

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Introduction to Sociology ­ SOC101
VU
Lesson 3
THEORETICAL PARADIGMS
Theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological theory is to
explain social behavior in the real world. For example why some groups of people have higher suicide rates
than others?
In building theory, sociologists face two basic facts: What issues should we study? How should we connect
the facts? How sociologists answer these questions depends on their theoretical "road map" or paradigm.
(It is pronounced as para-daia-um.)
Paradigm is a basic image of society. A theoretical paradigm provides a basic image of society
that guides thinking and research. For example: Do societies remain static? Do they continuously keep
changing? What keeps them stable? What makes societies ever changing?
Salient Paradigms
Sociology has three major paradigms reflecting different images of society:
1.
The Structural-Functional
2.
The Social-Conflict
3.
The Symbolic-Interaction
1. The Structural-Functional Paradigm:
It is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability.
The paradigm is based on the idea that:
1.
Our lives are guided by social structure i.e. relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social
structure gives our lives shape, whether it be in families, the workplace, or the classroom.
2.
Social structures can be understood in terms of their social functions, or consequences for the
operation of society as a whole. All social structures ­ from simple handshake to complex religious
rituals ­ function to keep society going.  All social structures contribute to the operation of
society.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) compared society to the human body. The structural parts of human body ­
the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs ­ show interdependence, each contributing to the survival
of the entire organism. Similarly various social structures, such as the family, educational system, and the
economy are interdependent, working in concert to preserve the society.
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) saw society as a system, and sought to identify the basic tasks that any and all
societies must perform to survive and the way they accomplish these tasks.
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) looked at functions in a different way:
1.
The consequences of any social pattern are likely to differ for various categories of people.
For example conventional family pattern provides for the support and development of children,
but it also confers privileges on men while limiting the opportunities for women.
2.
People rarely perceive all the functions of a social structure. He therefore distinguishes
between manifest functions ­ the recognized and intended consequences of a social pattern
--- and latent functions ­ the largely unrecognized and unintended consequences. Manifest functions of
educational institution ­ imparting knowledge, preparing young people for job market ­ Latent
function could be keeping so many young people out of the labor market.
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Introduction to Sociology ­ SOC101
VU
3.  Not all the effects of any social system benefit everyone in society. There could be social
dysfunctions i.e. undesirable consequences for the operation of society. Not everyone agrees on what is
beneficial and what is harmful. Is women empowerment functional?
Critical Evaluation
The chief characteristic of structural-functional paradigm is its vision of society as orderly, stable, and comprehensible. Goal is
to figure out `What makes the society tick.'
How can we assume that society has a "natural" order? If that is natural then there should be no variation
in the social pattern of people at different places, and there should be no change over time.
How about the inequalities in society that generate tension and conflict?
Approach appears to be conservative.
2. The Social-Conflict Paradigm
The social conflict framework sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change. Unlike structural-functional paradigm, which emphasizes solidarity, this approach highlights
division based on inequality.
Factors like gender, ethnicity, social class, and age are linked to the unequal distribution of money, power,
education, and social prestige.
A conflict analysis suggests that, rather than promoting the operation of society as a whole, social structure
typically benefits some people while depriving the others
There is an on-going conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people ­ rich
and poor, white and the colored, men in relation to women.
People on top strive to protect their privileges, while the disadvantaged try to gain more
resources for themselves.
Schooling perpetuates inequality by reproducing the class structure in every new generation.
Who goes to school, to college, to university, to vocational training institution?
How do the structural-functionalists look at the above analysis? Structural- Functionalists assert that such
tracking benefits all of society because students receive training that is appropriate to their academic
abilities.
Conflict sociologists counter the argument saying that `tracking' often has less to do with talent than with a
student's social background, so that the well to do are placed in higher tracks and the poor children end up
in lower tracks.
Young people from privileged families gain the best schooling, and, when they leave college, they pursue
prestigious, higher income careers. That is not the case for children from poor families. In both cases the
social standing of one generation is passed on to another, with the schools justifying the practice in terms of
individual merit.
Conflict sociologists not only try to understand the inequality in society but also try to influence to reduce
inequality in society. They want to change the system.
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Introduction to Sociology ­ SOC101
VU
Critical Evaluation
This school of thought has a large following.
This paradigm highlights inequality and division in society, but it largely ignores how shared values and
interdependence can generate unity among members of a society.
To a great extent, this paradigm has political goals, therefore it cannot claim objectivity. Conflict theorists
counter that all approaches have political consequences.
3. The Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
The structural-functionalists and social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning a focus
on broad social structures that shape society as a whole.
The symbolic interaction paradigm provides a micro-level orientation, meaning a focus on social interaction in
specific situations.
The symbolic-interaction paradigm sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. "Society"
amounts to the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another.
Human beings are the creatures who live in the world of symbols, attaching meaning to
virtually everything.
Symbols attached to reality (material or non material).
Meanings attached to symbols.
Symbols are the means of communication. Therefore:
Symbols as the basis of social life
·
Without symbols we would have no mechanism of perceiving others in terms of relationships
(aunts and uncles, employers and teachers). Only because we have these symbols like aunts and
uncles that define for us what such relationships entail. Compare these symbols with symbols like
boyfriend or girlfriend; you will see that the relationships change quite differently.
·
Without symbols we cannot coordinate our actions with others; we would be unable to plan for a
future date, time, and place. Without symbols there will be no books, movies, no schools, no
hospitals, and no governments. Symbols make social life possible.
·
Even self is symbol, for it consists of the ideas that we have about who we are. May be changing.
As we interact with others we may constantly adjust our views of the self, based on how we
interpret the reactions of others.
We define our realities. The definitions could vary. The definitions could be subjective. For example who
is a homeless? Who is a police officer ­ a provider of security or creator of anxiety. It has a subjective
meaning.
Max Weber is an exponent of this paradigm. He emphasized the need to understand any social setting from
the point of view of the people in it.
A person is the product of his experiences with others
Critical Evaluation
Without denying the usefulness of abstract social structures like the family, and social class this paradigm
reminds us that society basically amounts to people interacting. How individuals experience society.
This approach ignores the widespread effects of culture as well as factors like social class, gender, and race.
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Table of Contents:
  1. THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY:Auguste Comte, The Fields of Sociology
  2. THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:Society affects what we do
  3. THEORETICAL PARADIGMS:Salient Paradigms, Critical Evaluation
  4. SOCIOLOGY AS SCIENCE:Empirical, Verifiable, Cumulative, Self-Correcting
  5. STEPS IN SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION:Exploration/Consultation
  6. SOCIAL INTERACTION:Social Status, ROLE, The Social Construction of Reality
  7. SOCIAL GROUPS:Primary and Secondary Groups, Reference Group, Networks
  8. ORGANIZATIONS:Utilitarian Organizations, Coercive Organizations
  9. CULTURE:Universality, Components of Culture, Symbols, Language
  10. CULTURE (continued):Beliefs, Norms, Cultural Diversity
  11. CULTURE (continued):Culture by social class, Multiculturalism, Cultural Lag
  12. SOCIALIZATION: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, NATURE, Social Isolation
  13. UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS
  14. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:The Family, The School, Peer Groups, The Mass Media
  15. SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE COURSE:CHILDHOOD, ADOLESCENCE
  16. SOCIAL CONTROL AND DEVIANCE:Crime, Deviants, Stigma, Labeling
  17. THE SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF DEVIANCE:Cultural relativity of deviance
  18. EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME:Sociological explanations
  19. EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME -- CONTINUED:White-Collar Crime, Conflict Theory
  20. SOCIAL DISTRIBUTION OF CRIME: EXPLANATIONS, Gender and Crime
  21. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: INTRODUCTION AND SIGNIFICANCE
  22. THEORIES OF CLASS AND STRATIFICATION – I:Critical evaluation
  23. THEORIES OF SOCIAL CLASS AND STRATIFICATION – II
  24. THEORIES OF CLASS AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION – III
  25. SOCIAL CLASS AS SUBCULTURE
  26. SOCIAL MOBILITY:Structural factors, Individual factors, Costs
  27. THE FAMILY: GLOBAL VARIETY, Marriage Patterns, Patterns of Descent
  28. FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY:Reproduction, Social placement
  29. FAMILY AND MARRIAGE IN TRANSITION:Family is losing functions
  30. GENDER: A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION, Gender socialization
  31. GENDER SOCIALIZATION:Role of family, Gender Stratification
  32. EXPLANATIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY:Conflict Explanations, Feminism
  33. FUNCTIONS OF SCHOOLING:Cultural Innovation, School Tracking
  34. ISSUES IN EDUCATION:Low Enrollment, High Dropout, Gender Disparity
  35. POPULATION STUDY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE:Crude Birth Rate
  36. THEORY OF POPULATION GROWTH:Theory of Demographic Transition
  37. POPULATION PROFILE OF PAKISTAN:World Population Growth
  38. POPULATION PROFILE OF PAKISTAN (Continued):Age Distribution, Sex Composition
  39. IMPLICAIONS OF POPULATION GOWTH:Additional GDP needed per year
  40. POPULATION POLICY:Goals of Population Policy, Objectives, Strategies
  41. ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY:Global Dimension, Historical Dimension
  42. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:Preserving Clean Water, Clearing the Air
  43. SOCIAL CHANGE:Social change is controversial.
  44. CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE:Culture and Change, Conflict and Change, Modernization
  45. MODERNITY AND POST MODERNITY:Cultural Patterns, Post-modernity