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REVISION:Positivistic perspective, Interpretive Perspective, Inductive approach

<< EMERGENCE OF CRITICAL & CULTURAL THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
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Theories of Communication ­ MCM 511
VU
LESSON 22
REVISION
Understanding the nature of communication
Definitions of communication
Conceptualizations of communication- points of convergence
·  Communication as a process
·  Communication is transactional
·  Communication is symbolic
Communication is a process a process ­oriented conceptualization of communication suggests that it is
continuous and complex and cannot be arbitrarily isolated.
Communication is transactional that is, not only do participant constantly influence each other, they are
also by the influenced context in which they interact
A third area of convergence in conceptualizations of communication is the belief that communication is
symbolic.
·  Semiotics a study of signs
·  Sign is a relationship between Signifier and the signified
·  Signifier is the word book
·  Signified is the concept of the book
Understanding the nature of theory
Theory
Paradigm
Paradigms are different ways of looking at world- the ways to observe, measure and understand social
reality.
There are three major paradigms
·  Positivistic perspective
·  Interpretive perspective
·  Critical perspective
Positivistic perspective
·  Is objective,
·  Rests on order,
·  Is governed by strict , natural and unchangeable laws
·  And can be realized through experience
·  All members of society define reality in the same way, because they all share the same
meanings.
Interpretive Perspective
·  Interpretative social science relates to the works of Vico, Dilthey and Weber.
·  Interpretive theorist s believe that reality is not `out there' but in the minds of the people
·  Reality is internally experienced is socially constructed through interaction and interpreted
through the actors and is based on the definition people attach to it
·  Reality is not objective but subjective
Critical Perspective
This was developed out of the work of Karl Marx and the critical, theorists and feminists.
Critical theorists see reality in a different manner.
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Reality is created not by nature but by the powerful people who manipulate, condition and brainwash
others to perceive things the way they want them to, to serve the needs of the powerful.
Sir Karl Popper, a philosopher instrumental in shaping 20th century views of knowledge are, "Theories
are nets cast to catch what we call the world."
Theories help us understand or explain phenomena we observe in the social world.
There are two approaches to theory building.
·  Deductive approach
·  Inductive approach
Deductive approach
·  From the general to particular; the process by which theory is tested
·  Deductive approach to theory building tend to give primacy to theory
Inductive approach
·  Inductive approach to theory building gives primacy to observation.
·  From the particular to the general; the process by which theory is generated.
·  In this approach, theoretical abstractions are based on- or grounded in empirical observation
Model
A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality. A model seeks to
show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between these elements.
(McQuail)
A theoretical and simplified representation of the real world. A model is not an explanatory device by
itself, but it helps to formulate theory
Study some of the early communication models
So a successful pictorial model offers three major advantages.
·  They organize concepts
·  They explain processes and
·  They predict outcomes
Two kinds of models
·  Structural model
·  Functional models
Three different ways of viewing communication processes
·  Linear model
·  Interactive model
·  Transactional model
From communication to mass communication models
The term mass communication emerged in late 1930s;
Nature of the communicator
Nature of audience
Nature of communication experience
What is mass communication?
Why study mass communication?
How the media industry originated?
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Development in the history of Mass Communication
DeFleur and Ball Rokeach in 1989point out to a number of important developments in the history of
mass communication
·  Age of signs and signals
·  Age of speech and language
·  Age of writing- papyrus
·  Age of printing after 15th century-Gutenberg's invention of moveable type and printing pres in
1456
·  But the age of MC was ushered by widespread distribution of newspapers (1920 radio 1940 TV)
Mass media includes
·  Print media
·  Electronic media
·  New media- Telematic media
As new media combine telecommunication and information it includes:
·  Video games
·  Virtual reality
·  CD- Rom
Normative Theories of Media
·  Authoritarian Theory
·  Libertarian Theory
·  Chicago School
Authoritarian Theory
·  Libertarian theory arose in opposition Authoritarian theory-
·  An idea that placed all forms of communication under the control of a governing elite or
authorities.
·  Authorities justified their control as a means to protect and preserve a divinely ordained social
order.
Libertarian Theory
·  In rebelling against authoritarian theory early libertarians argued that there should be no laws
governing media operations.
·  Free press means that all forms of media must be totally unregulated.
Hutchins Commission on Freedom
It emphasized the need for an independent press that scrutinizes other social institutions and provides
objective, accurate, news reports.
Chicago School
Chicago School envisioned modern cities as "Great Communities" comprising hundreds of small social
groups- everything from neighborhood social organizations to citywide associations.
For these Great Communities to develop, all the constituent groups had to work together and contribute.
These were referred to as pluralistic groups in recognition of their cultural and racial diversity.
Totalitarian media Theory
Totalitarian media Theory is a normative theory calling for suppression of pluralistic groups and the use
of media under the control of the dominant political party to propagate a strong centralized political
culture.
·
Civic or public journalism
·
Development media theory
·
Democratic-participant theory
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Keeping the spirit of the SR theory in view many newspapers began practicing civic journalism, actively
engaging the members of their areas in reporting important civic issues.
Development media theory
Development media theory was intended to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition
from underdevelopment and colonialism to independence and better material conditions often lack the
infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills.
Democratic-participant theory
Democratic-participant theory was proposed in recognition of new media developments and of
increasing criticism of the dominance of the main mass media by private or public monopolies.
·
the rise of mass society
·
the assumptions about mass society
·
main theories of mass society--one propounded by Ferdinand Tonnies ­ concept of
Gemeinschaft (folk society) and Gesellschaft (modern, industrial society)-
·
the other propounded by Emile Durkheim- concept of mechanical solidarity (folk societies) and
organic solidarity (modern social societies)
·
what were the assumptions about the relationship of mass society and mass media
Theories that propounded that media have a powerful effect on people. Theories which were the reason
for the theories that media can be used as powerful propaganda tool.
·  Behaviorism
·  Freudianism
·  Magic bullet theory
·  Lasswell propaganda theory
·  Walter Lippmann
Behaviorism
John B. Watson- an animal experimentalist who argued that All human action is merely a conditioned
response to external environmental stimuli. Media provides external stimuli that triggered immediate
responses (Nazi propaganda)
Freudianism
Sigmund Freud
1. Ego is rational mind is in control
2. Id is the dark side of the self- the egocentric, (selfish and self-centered) pleasure seeking part of
ourselves- that Ego must struggle to keep in control
3. Ego relies on the internalized set of cultural rules the Superego- for guidance
Magic Bullet Theories
In the 1920s Media was assumed to operate like magic bullets that penetrated people's minds and
instantly created associations between strong emotions and specific concepts.
By carefully controlling these magic bullets, propagandists felt that they could condition people
associate good emotions, such as loyalty and reverences with their own country and associate bad
emotions, such as fear and loathing with their enemies.
Paradigm Shift in Mass Communication Theory
Middle ­range theory and the consolidation of the limited effects paradigm. How a radical
transformation in media theory took place. The focus from powerful effect of media shifted to Limited
Effects of Media. And how this became the dominant paradigm in U.S media research from 1940 till
1960s.
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Work of the pioneer researchers in this field who were responsible for bringing this shift
Work of Paul Lazarsfeld of Princeton University
Work of Carl Hovland
Two-Step Flow of Information and Influence
This finding led the establishment of a TWO-STEP FLOW MODEL OF MASS COMMUNICATION,
in which effects were perceived as being modified by interpersonal communication about those media
messages.
Carl Hovland and the Experimental section found that attitude change was a very complex issue and
many variables had affects on the attitude of an individual e.g. kind of message- one sided or two-sided;
socio-economic background, when people are predisposed to a certain attitude etc
Collectively, these ways have become known as the SELECTIVE PROCESSES
·  Selective exposure
·  Selective retention
·  Selective perception
The influential middle range theories developed as part of the limited effects paradigm
·  Functional analysis approach
·  Information flow theory
Functionalist approach
So functionalist approach was that all practices that contribute to maintaining the society can be said to
be Functional rather than good. Any practices that are disruptive or harmful are by definition
Dysfunctional rather than evil.
As long as functional practices dominate and dysfunctional practices are kept to some minimum. The
society will flourish- it can be said to be in balance because the functional practices balance out the
dysfunctional ones.
Information Flow Theory
The overall objective of this wok was to assess the effectiveness of media in transmitting information to
a mass audience.
News flow research focused on determining whether barriers impeded the flow of information from
media to typical audience members
The research confirmed the importance of motivating people to pass on information, but suggested that
even a free gift was insufficient to guarantee the accurate flow of information.
Klapper's Phenomenistic theory
He argued that media rarely have any direct effects and are relatively powerless when compared with
other social and psychological factors such as social status, group membership, strongly held attitudes,
education and so forth.
His theory is often referred to now as reinforcements theory because a key assertion is that the primary
influence of media is to reinforce (not change) existing attitudes and behaviors
Klapper's Generalizations
Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Diffusion of innovation theory states that an innovation (i.e. , an idea , new technique, new technology )
diffuses or spreads throughout society in a predictable pattern. A few people will adopt an innovation
as soon as they hear of it other people will take longer to try something new and still others will take
much longer. The pattern is that of an S-shaped curve.
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Rogers and other diffusion researchers have identified five separate innovation-adoption categories into
which all people in a society will fall.
·  Innovators
·  Early adopters
·  Early majority
·  Late majority
·  Laggards
Challenging the dominant paradigm
How the growing violence and the possible contribution of the television became a concern for the
American society. Several different perspectives are discussed, including:
·  Surgeon General's Scientific
·  Catharsis
·  Social learning
Surgeon General's Scientific
Advisory Committee on Television and social behavior in 1969.
While the ... report is care fully phrased and qualified in language acceptable to social scientists , it is
clear to me that the causal relationship between televised violence and antisocial behavior is sufficient
to warrant appropriate and immediate remedial action. The data on social phenomena such as
television and violence and or aggressive behavior will never be clear enough for all social scientists to
agree on the formulation of a succinct statement of causality, But there comes a time when the data are
sufficient to justify action, that time has come.
Catharsis ­ sometimes called sublimation- the idea that viewing violence is sufficient to purge or at
least satisfy a person's aggressive drive and, therefore, reduce the likelihood of aggressive behavior.
Catharsis suggested that television violence had social utility, providing young people with a harmless
outlet for their pent-up aggression and hostility.
Social Learning
Social learning ­ encompasses both imitation and identification to explain how people learn through
observation of other in their environments
Social cognitive theory
Modeling from mass media
Priming effects
Variables that enhance priming effects
According to Albert Bandura, " social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of
triadic reciprocal causation , in this model of reciprocal determinism, behavior; cognitive, biological
and other personal factors; and environmental events all operate as interaction determinants that
influence each other bidirectionally."
Baundra's social cognitive theory of mass communication the broader social learning theory serve as the
foundations for volumes of research in all areas of media effects study-
Effects of media violence
And sexually explicit material
Pro-social or positive media effects
Cultivation effects
Persuasion
Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of these uniquely human characteristics, known as
the
·  symbolizing capacity
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·
self-regulatory capacity
·
self-reflective capacity
·
vicarious capacities
Modeling
The phenomenon of behavior reenactment is called as MODELLING. Modeling is the acquisition of
behaviors through observation.
Modeling includes four component processes
·  Attention
·  Retention
·  Motor reproduction
·  Motivation
Whenever a person sees a character on the screen expressing some strong emotion or performing some
powerful action,
The viewer is affected or aroused.
The viewer remembers similar experiences and emotions, and these thoughts and images serve as cues
that trigger self-arousal. E.g. ET, Jaws, horror movies--fear reaction.
Cultivation
The cultivation hypothesis developed as one attempt to explain the influence of television on its
viewers, the cultivation tradition grew out of a media violence research project called the Cultural
Indicators Project, headed in the 1960s by George Gerbner, a University of Pennsylvania
communication scholar.
Simply stated, the cultivation hypothesis proposes that over time , heavy viewers of television develop
views of the world similar to what they see on television.
Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming is a leveling effect. Heavy viewing resulting in a common viewpoint washes out
differences in perceptions of reality usually caused by demographic and social factors.
Resonance
Resonance occurs when real world support the distorted image of reality shown on television. Whenever
direct experience is in agreement with the messages from television, the messages are reinforced- they
resonate- the cultivation effect is amplified.
The extent to which person cultivates the messages seen on television depends upon a number of
factors. Some people are more susceptible to cultivation influence due to personality traits, social
background, cultural mores (education) and even their past television viewing experiences. Is viewing
done to meet informational needs or as diversion? The number of information alternatives available.
Systems
Ideally, systems notions could provide a powerful way of conceptualizing complex, social system and
analyzing the role played by communication in them. Important social problems might be solved
·
Closed versus open systems
·
The criticism of systems models
·
Emergence of critical and cultural theories of mass communication
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Table of Contents:
  1. COMMUNICATION:Nature of communication, Transactional approach, Communication is symbolic:
  2. THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (I):Positivistic Perspective, Critical Perspective
  3. THEORY, PARADIGM AND MODEL (II):Empirical problems, Conceptual problems
  4. FROM COMMUNICATION TO MASS COMMUNICATION MODELS:Channel
  5. NORMATIVE THEORIES:Authoritarian Theory, Libertarian Theory, Limitations
  6. HUTCHINS COMMISSION ON FREEDOM, CHICAGO SCHOOL & BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
  7. CIVIC JOURNALISM, DEVELOPMENT MEDIA THEORY & DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT THEORY
  8. LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESS THEORY:Concentration and monopoly, Commercialism
  9. MCQUAIL’S FOUR KINDS OF THEORIES:Social scientific theory, Critical theory
  10. PROPAGANDA THEORIES:Origin of Propaganda, Engineering of Consent, Behaviorism
  11. PARADIGM SHIFT & TWO STEP FLOW OF INFORMATION
  12. MIDDLE RANGE THEORIES:Background, Functional Analysis Approach, Elite Pluralism
  13. KLAPPER’S PHENOMENSITIC THEORY:Klapper’s Generalizations, Criticism
  14. DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION THEORY:Innovators, Early adopters
  15. CHALLENGING THE DOMINANT PARADIGM:Catharsis Social learning Social cognitive theory
  16. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEROY:Symbolizing Capacity, MODELLING
  17. MODELING FROM MASS MEDIA:Recent research, Summary, PRIMING EFFECTS
  18. PRIMING EFFECT:Conceptual Roots, Perceived meaning, Percieved justifiability
  19. CULTIVATION OF PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY:History
  20. SYSTEMS THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESSES:System
  21. EMERGENCE OF CRITICAL & CULTURAL THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
  22. REVISION:Positivistic perspective, Interpretive Perspective, Inductive approach
  23. CRITICAL THEORIES & ROLE OF MASS COMMUNICATION IN A SOCIETY -THE MEDIATION OF SOCIAL RELATIONS
  24. ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN SOCIAL ORDER & MARXIST THEORY:Positive View
  25. KEY PRINCIPLES USED IN MARXISM:Materialism, Class Struggle, Superstructure
  26. CONSUMER SOCIETY:Role of mass media in alienation, Summary of Marxism
  27. COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE:Neo Marxism, Characteristics of Culture
  28. HEGEMONY:What exactly is the meaning of "hegemony"?
  29. CULTURE INDUSTRY:Gramscianism on Communications Matters
  30. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY I:Internationalization, Vertical Integration
  31. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY II:Diversification, Instrumental
  32. POLITICAL ECONOMIC THEORY III:Criticism, Power of Advertising
  33. AGENDA SETTING THEORY:A change in thinking, First empirical test
  34. FRAMING & SPIRAL OF SILENCE:Spiral of Silence, Assessing public opinion
  35. SPIRAL OF SILENCE:Fear of isolation, Assessing public opinion, Micro-level
  36. MARSHALL MCLUHAN: THE MEDIUM IS THE MESSAGE AND MASSAGE
  37. KNOWLEDGE GAP THEORY:Criticism on Marshal McLuhan
  38. MEDIA SYSTEM DEPENDENCY THEORY:Media System Dependency Theory
  39. USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY:Methods
  40. RECEPTION THEORY
  41. FRAMING AND FRAME ANALYSIS:Information Processing Theory, Summing up
  42. TRENDS IN MASS COMMUNICATION I:Communication Science, Direct channels
  43. TRENDS IN MASS COMMUNICATION II:Communication Maxims, Emotions
  44. GLOBALIZATION AND MEDIA:Mediated Communication, Post Modernism
  45. REVISION:Microscopic Theories, Mediation of Social Relations