ZeePedia

PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES:Expertise, Thinking skills

<< DECISION MAKING:History, Personal Rationality, Social Model, Conceptual
JOB STRESS:Distress and Eustress, Burnout, General Adaptation Syndrome >>
img
Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
VU
LESSON 30
PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES
Participative decision making techniques involve individuals or groups in process. As organizations move
from centralized decision making to a non-centralized one, it has become important for all concerned
people to be involved in the decision making process so that the decision is the best possible alternative.
Participated decision making techniques range from no participation to participation of all concerned
individuals. Participation techniques are being applied formally and informally on an individual or a team
basis or formally on a program basis.
These techniques may be categorized as follows:
·  Consultative: In consultative decision making, the right of decision making resides with the manager
and he may consult or have the opinion of other concerned.
·  Democratic: In democratic decision making, decision is made by the group as a whole rather than an
individual.
Participative decision making, as mentioned earlier, is the need of the hour. However, it has some merits as
well as demerits. The most important merit participative decision making is that it allows all concerned
people to participate which is not only encouraging for them but also leads to satisfaction on part of the
employees with their jobs.
On the other hand, on the greatest demerits of such techniques is that they are time consuming as
compared to individual decision making. Further, the concept of pseudo-participation may serve as a cause
of dissatisfaction for those employees who put in their best in the decision making process. Pseudo-
participation refers to employees pretending to participate in the process while actually contributing very
little. It is similar to a group of students working on an assignment where two out of the four may work
very hard while others may only pretend to work. This leads to dissatisfaction on part of the employees
rather than satisfaction.
Creativity
A psychodynamic approach to understanding creativity was proposed by Sigmund Freud, who suggested
that creativity arises as a result of frustrated desires for fame, fortune, and love, with the energy that was
previously tied up in frustration and emotional tension in the neurosis being sublimated into creative
activity. Freud later retracted this view.
Although intuitively a simple phenomenon, it is in fact quite complex. It has been studied from the
perspectives of behavioural psychology, social psychology, psychometrics, cognitive science, artificial
intelligence, philosophy, history, economics, design research, business, and management, among others. The
studies have covered everyday creativity, exceptional creativity and even artificial creativity. Unlike many
phenomena in science, there is no single, authoritative perspective or definition of creativity. Unlike many
phenomena in psychology, there is no standardized measurement technique.
Creativity has been attributed variously to divine intervention, cognitive processes, the social environment,
personality traits, and chance ("accident," "serendipity"). It has been associated with genius, mental illness
and humour. Some say it is a trait we are born with; others say it can be taught with the application of
simple techniques.
As the world becomes a global village, one of the greatest challenges faced by organizations is to remain
competitive and think beyond the box. Organizations need to change, adapt to the change and innovate in
order to survive the continuously harshening environment. In simple terms, the process of being able to
think beyond the box and come up with novel ideas which are practical and applicable is creativity.
According to the creativity researcher Teresa Amabile, creativity consists of three things:
·  Expertise
Expertise refers to technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge.
·  Thinking skills
Thinking skills refer to how flexibly and imaginatively people can deal with problems and make
effective decisions.
·
Motivation
Motivation is the desire to solve given problems.
105
img
Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
VU
Simply put, creativity results in people looking at things differently. Research shows that, in contrast to the
average person, creative people seem better able to do things such as abstracting, imaging, synthesizing,
recognizing patterns and empathizing with others. Creativity and decision making have a close relationship
as creative people tend to make useful decisions for the organization's survival.
Psychological definition of creativity is that it involves combing responses in a novel way. Psychologists
suggest that it is difficult to point out the reasons for creativity however, following dimensions of creativity
have been identified:
·  Divergent thinking
This refers to a person's ability to generate novel, but still appropriate, responses to question and
problems. This is in contrast to convergent thinking where decisions are based purely on logic and
rationality.
·  Cognitive complexity
This refers to a person's ability to use intricate and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Such decision
making patterns are usually adopted in solution of philosophical or abstract problems.
Group and Decision Making
Research in social psychology has shown that in group decision making following variants are observed:
·  Majority Wins Scheme
According to this scheme, the group finally comes to the same conclusion or decision which was
initially supported by the majority.
·  Truth Wins Scheme
According to this scheme, the group tends to make decisions based on objectively correct and plausible
alternatives.
·  Two-third Majority Scheme
According to this scheme, the group tends to support decisions that were initially supported by two-
third majority.
·  First-shift scheme
According to this scheme, if in a group there is an opposition to some decision, the decision would be
based on the first person changing has allegiance with the point of view which he or she originally held.
·  Status quo tendency
Group decision making often tends to support or end up in status quo.
·  Risky Shift
Decisions made in a group tend to be riskier than decisions made by individuals.
·  Group think
Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of
action.
Delphi Techniques of Decision Making
The Delphi technique is a method for obtaining forecasts from a panel of independent experts over two or
more rounds. Experts are asked to predict quantities. After each round, an administrator provides an
anonymous summary of the experts' forecasts and their reasons for them. When experts' forecasts have
changed little between rounds, the process is stopped and the final round forecasts are combined by
averaging. Delphi is based on well-researched principles and provides forecasts that are more accurate than
those from unstructured groups (Rowe and Wright 1999, Rowe and Wright 2001).
It is a complex and time consuming alternative. It does not require the physical presence of group members.
In fact, the Delphi technique never allows the group's members to meet face to face. The following steps
characterize Delphi technique:
1. The problem is identified and members are asked to provide potential solutions through a series of
carefully designed questionnaires.
2. Each member anonymously and independently completes the first questionnaire.
3. Results of the first questionnaire are compiled at a central location, transcribed, and reproduced.
4. Each member receives a copy of the results.
5. After viewing the results, members are again asked for their solutions. The results typically trigger new
solutions or cause changes in the orginal position.
106
img
Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
VU
6. Steps 4 and 5 are repeated as often as necessary until consensus is reached.
The Delphi technique insulates group members from undue influence of others. Because it does not require
the physical presence of the participants, the Delphi technique can be used for decision making among
geographically scattered groups. For instance, a Japanese electronics company could use the technique to
query its mangers in Tokyo, Brussels, Paris, London, New York Toronto, Rio de Janeiro, and Melbourne as
to the best worldwide price for one of the company's products. The cost of brining the executive together a
central location is avoided. Of course, the Delphi technique has its drawbacks. Because the method is
extremely time consuming, it is frequently not applicable where a speedy decision is necessary. Additionally,
the method may not develop the rich array of alternatives as the nominal group technique does. Ideas that
might surface from the heat of face-to-face interaction may never arise. Interacting group suffer from
inhibition and group think therefore this method is more useful
Nominal Group Techniques (NGT) Of Decision Making
The nominal group technique is a decision-making method for use among groups of many sizes, who want
to make their decision quickly, as by a vote, but want everyone's opinions taken into account (as opposed to
traditional voting, where only the largest group is considered). The method of tallying is the difference.
First, every member of the group gives their view of the solution, with a short explanation. Then, duplicate
solutions are eliminated from the list of all solutions, and the members proceed to rank the solutions. The
numbers each solution receives are totalled, and the solution with the highest (i.e. most favored) total
ranking is selected as the final decision. There are variations on how this technique is used. For example, it
can identify strengths versus areas in need of development, rather than be used as a decision-making voting
alternative. Also, options do not always have to be ranked, but may be evaluated more subjectively.
The nominal group technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-
making process, hence the term nominal. Group members are al physically present, as in a traditional
committee meeting, but members operate independently. Specifically, a problem is presented and then the
following steps take place:
1. Members meet as a group but, before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes
down his or her ideas on the problem.
2. This silent period is followed by each member presenting one idea to the group. Each member takes his
or her turn, going around the table, presenting a single idea until all ideas have been presented and
recorded (typically on a flip chard or chalkboard). No discussion takes place until all ideas have been
recorded.
3. The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
4. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The final decision is determined
by the ideas with the highest aggregate ranking.
The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits the group to meet formally but does
not restrict independent thinking, as does the interacting group. Nominal group technique is considered
superior to Delphi technique.
REFERENCES
·  Luthans, Fred. (2005). Organizational Behaviour (Tenth Edition). United States: McGraw Hill Irwin.
·  Mejia, Gomez. Balkin, David & Cardy, Robert. (2006). Managing Human Resources (Fourth Edition).
India: Dorling Kidersley Pvt. Ltd., licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.
·  Robbins, P., Stephen. (1996). Organizational Behaviour (Seventh Edition). India: Prentice Hall, Delhi.
·  Huczynski, Andrzej & Buchanan, David. (1991). Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text
(Second Edition). Prentice Hall. New York.
·  Moorhead, Gregory & Griffin, Ricky. (2001). Organizational Behaviour (First Edition). A.I.T.B.S.
Publishers & Distributors. Delhi.
·  Creativity: Psychological Definition: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
·  Delphi technique definition: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_technique
·  Nominal group technique: Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal_Group_Technique
FURTHER READING
Decision making: http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/unssc/unpan022443.pdf
·  Creativity: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
107
img
Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
VU
·
Delphi technique definition: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_technique
·
Nominal group technique: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal_Group_Techniques
108
Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHLOGY:Hawthorne Effect
  2. METHODOLOGIES OF DATA COLLECTION:Observational method, Stability of Measures
  3. GLOBALIZATION:Aspects of Globalization, Industrial Globalization
  4. DEFINING THE CULTURE:Key Components of Culture, Individualism
  5. WHAT IS DIVERSITY?:Recruitment and Retention, Organizational approaches
  6. ETHICS:Sexual Harassment, Pay and Promotion Discrimination, Employee Privacy
  7. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS:Flat Organization, Neoclassical Organization Theory
  8. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Academy Culture, Baseball Team Culture, Fortress Culture
  9. CHANGING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Move decisively, defuse resistance
  10. REWARD SYSTEMS: PAY, Methods of Pay, Individual incentive plan, New Pay Techniques
  11. REWARD SYSTEMS: RECOGNITION AND BENEFITS, Efficiency Wage Theory
  12. PERCEPTION:How They Work Together, Gestalt Laws of Grouping, Closure
  13. PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE:Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Stereotyping
  14. ATTRIBUTION:Locus of Control, Fundamental Attribution Error
  15. IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT:Impression Construction, Self-focused IM
  16. PERSONALITY:Classifying Personality Theories, Humanistic/Existential
  17. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT:Standardized, Basic Categories of Measures
  18. ATTITUDE:Emotional, Informational, Behavioural,Positive and Negative Affectivity
  19. JOB SATISFACTION:The work, Pay, Measurement of Job Satisfaction
  20. MOTIVATION:Extrinsic motive, Theories of work motivation, Safety needs
  21. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:Instrumentality, Stacy Adams’S Equity theory
  22. MOTIVATION ACROSS CULTURES:Meaning of Work, Role of Religion
  23. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:Criticisms of ‘Traditional’ Psychology, Optimism
  24. HOPE:Personality, Our goals, Satisfaction with important domains, Negative affect
  25. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:EI IS Related To Emotions and Intelligence
  26. SELF EFFICACY:Motivation, Perseverance, Thoughts, Sources of Self-Efficacy
  27. COMMUNICATION:Historical Background, Informal-Formal, Interpersonal Communication
  28. COMMUNICATION (Part II):Downward Communication, Stereotyping Problems
  29. DECISION MAKING:History, Personal Rationality, Social Model, Conceptual
  30. PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES:Expertise, Thinking skills
  31. JOB STRESS:Distress and Eustress, Burnout, General Adaptation Syndrome
  32. INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS:Role Ambiguity/ Role Conflict, Personal Control
  33. EFFECTS OF STRESS:Physical Effects, Behavioural Effects, Individual Strategies
  34. POWER AND POLITICS:Coercive Power, Legitimate Power, Referent Power
  35. POLITICS:Sources of Politics in Organizations, Final Word about Power
  36. GROUPS AND TEAMS:Why Groups Are Formed, Forming, Storming
  37. DYSFUNCTIONS OF GROUPS:Norm Violation, Group Think, Risky Shift
  38. JOB DESIGN:Job Rotation, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, Skill Variety
  39. JOB DESIGN:Engagement, Disengagement, Social Information Processing, Motivation
  40. LEARNING:Motor Learning, Verbal Learning, Behaviouristic Theories, Acquisition
  41. OBMOD:Applications of OBMOD, Correcting Group Dysfunctions
  42. LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Managers versus Leaders, Defining Leadership
  43. MODERN THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Transformational Leaders
  44. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Globalization and Leadership
  45. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Planning, Staffing