GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY:GENDER DIFFERENCES IN BULLYING

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Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)

Lesson 19, 20

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY

Men and women have been found to be different on a number of dimensions of personality. On some

characteristics male score higher and on some females. In case of some traits stereotypically thought to be

female traits, men score higher e.g. in case of talkativeness. Researches on gender differences do not provide us

any conclusive evidence, and a basis to consider men and women as tow entirely different entities. Some

differences has been found, however research shows that these differences are insignificant and inconsistent

(Huston, 1985; Hyde, 1984, 1986; Maccoby, 1990). According to Feshbach et al., 1996, "There appear to be

relatively few basic psychological differences between the sexes, although members of the tow sexes are

socialized t behave in different ways." Research does not provide substantial evidence of gender differences in

most traits, aggression being an exception.

GENDER AND AGGRESSION

There is no dearth of empirical evidence that males are more aggressive than females. This difference in

manifested even in early childhood. Even in children 2 years of age, boys display more aggression than girls and

this tendency persist throughout the life span. When compared in terms of their reaction to their own

aggression, women feel more anxiety and guilt over their aggression. They are more concerned about its effects

on their victims (Feingold, 1994; Hyde, 1994; Munroe et al., 2000). Physical aggression is much more common

in boys, than in girls (Berger, 2000). Relational aggression or social aggression is considered more hurtful than

physical aggression, in older children, especially girls (Galen, and Underwood, 1997). Relational aggression aims

to cause psychic pain to the victim rather than a physical pain; it involves insult or social rejection. Research

shows that girls use relational aggression more that boys do; however both use this form of aggression.

Females' involvement in covert or relational aggression is higher than males; they use snubbing, ignoring, and

undermining others more than men do (Crick, Casas, and Mosher, 1997; Crick, and Grotpeter, 1995). But most

research shows that differences are greater n terms of physical aggression, but very little in case of verbal

aggression. Males tend to be more aggressive than females, both verbally and physically, both children and

adults. In most societies men account for violent crime in disproportionately large numbers. Psychologists have

different viewpoint regarding aggressiveness being higher in males.

The biological explanation:

This difference is innate and biologically based in hormones (Maccoby, and Jacklin, 1980).

Learning and Social factors explanation:

Gender differences in aggression are not biological; learning and socialization are the responsible factors. This

approach argues that if aggressiveness is biologically disposed then it should be the same in children and adults;

but if the tendency develops in adulthood, or increase with age, then the social factors are responsible for it.

Some research, though not conclusive, suggests that aggression tends to increase with the age of the child.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN BULLYING

Bullying is a common phenomenon in school going children. Mostly boys are bullied by older boys, or by

peers. In case of girls, another dimension of bullying has been reported. One third of all 9-15 years old girls

reported, in the US, having experienced sexual teasing or touching; this caused or problem so serious that they

wanted to avoid school (American Association of University Women Foundation, 1993).

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND BEHAVIORS

Men and women differ in terms of non-verbal communication and behaviors. Females are more sensitive to

subtle non-verbal cues than men (Hall, 1990). Women may be better at decoding or interpreting others' body

language (Eagly, 1987; Hall, 1978). But there are no differences in the display of postures or gestures associated

with dominance in non-verbal social situations (Halberstadt, and Saitta, 1987). Women have a tendency of gaze

when someone is talking, especially a man. Men typically do no look at women talking. Women are generally

more formal and tense in their posture and demeanor. Men are generally informal and relaxed (Henley, 1977).

Also women are more likely to smile than men. According to Henley, these differences reflect the power

Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)

position of men, and submission of women. It also indicates that men have a higher and women a lower status

in society. The gestures used by men are the ones used by people with a high and powerful position; the case is

the opposite with women.

TOUCHING

Men and women also differ in terms of the use of touching as part of their non-verbal communication. Men

touch, but do not generally like being touched. Women generally give a positive response to touching, but do

not usually take initiative in touching (Whitcher, Fisher, 1979; Henley, 1977; Major, 1981).

EXPRESSIVENESS AND SENSITIVITY

Men and women also vary in their expressiveness and sensitivity to what the other person is conveying, doing,

or communicating in general. Women have been found to be superior both in accurately sending, and in

understanding non-verbal communication (Hall, 1984; Mayo, and Henley, 1981; Rosenthal, and Benowitz,

1985). Women have an ability to identify negative feeling, except anger in man cases. According to Brown

(1986), this heightened ability may be a function of women's' less powerful position, and they may have to

develop sensitivity to the leakage of negative feelings.

GENDER DIFFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION STYLE

Although women are stereotypically thought to be talkative, it is the men who are more talkative and likely to

interrupt others (Key, 1975).

SELF DISCLOSURE

Females are more likely to indulge in self disclosure. They are more likely to "self-disclose" and share their

inner ideas and feelings (Cozby, 1973). Men and women consistently differ both in degree of disclosure, and

what they actually reveal (Shafer, Pegalis, and Bazzini, 1996). As compared to men, women generally disclose

more, especially about emotions, relationships, and other personal matters (Cozby, 1972; Davidson, and

Duberman, 1982). Men, especially highly masculine men, disclose more in one context, they disclose more with

women with who they anticipate future interaction. In disclosing more to women in such a context these men,

seem to want to take the lead in exploring possibilities for a future romantic relationship with the women

(Schaffer, Pegalis, and Bazzini, 1996). According to Henley, men disclose only to women with whom they are

intimate, or wish to become intimate. Self disclosure is also influenced by gender-role stereotypes. People,

both men and women, if insecure and socially anxious, are likely to disclose themselves in away that is

consistent with gender-role stereotypes; in doing so they may reinforce and perpetuate those stereotypes (Snell,

1989).

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COMMUNICATION

Gender differences are found in non-verbal as well as verbal communication styles (Mc. Millan et al., 1977;

Feingold, 1994). The nature of the content of speech used by women in different from that used by men.

Women use a more speech pattern. But the way women talk, leads others to evaluate them as less assertive and

tentative. Women have tendency to add tags at the end of an opinion instead of a straight opinion statement.

They tend to raise the pitch at the end of a sentence. When they add tags at the end of an opinion, women

appear to be less certain about the statement they are making. As a result of their use of tentative language,

women are viewed as less competent and knowledgeable; this opinion is not made in case of those using as

assertive style of speech (Martin, 1987; Carli, 1990; Crawford, 1995). Women, although stereotypically

considered talkative, talk less than men. Men are more talkative in a variety of settings. As compared to

women, men are more likely to interrupt others (Key, 1975).According to Davidson and Duberman in a study

of communication between pairs of best friends (1982), there are no differences between men and women in

terms of talking about topical issue like politics, current events, movies, or work. However they differ in their

discussion of relational and personal topics. Women are more likely to make specific talk about:

Personal aspects of their life, and

their relationship with the friend

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