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COMMUNICATION:Historical Background, Informal-Formal, Interpersonal Communication

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Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
VU
Lesson 27
COMMUNICATION
(Part I)
Communication can be defined as the use of symbols to transfer information. Communication is a social
process in which two or more parties exchange information and share meaning. Communication has been
studies from many perspectives. Research shows that 44% of managerial effectiveness comes from routine
communication. Organizational communication may be defined as all the patterns, networks and systems of
communication within an organization.
Good communication is often erroneously defined by the communicator as agreement with the message
instead of clear understanding of the message. If someone disagrees with us, many of us assume that the
person just did not fully understand our position. In other words, many of us define good communication
as having someone accept our views. But anyone can clearly understand what we mean and just not agree
with what we say. In fact, many times when a conflict has gone on a long time, people will say it is because
the parties are not communicating effectively. This assumption reflects the tendency to think that effective
communication equals agreement, which is not true.
Historical Background
Henry Fayol's Contribution
Henry Fayol gave a detailed analysis of and solution to communication problem. According to him, formal
channels of communication in the organization cause the communication to be slow and distorted. If there
are a number of channels and steps between the top management and the frontline managers, the
information emanating for the frontline managers would become highly distorted when it reaches the top
management, i.e. only if the information actually reaches the addressee. Therefore, according to Fayol,
formal channels of communication in organizations should not be followed in an organization but
"gangplank" should be allowed. Gangplank literally means a plank or a board used for boarding or
disembarking from a ship. In the context of communication, gangplank, as used by Fayol refers to the
ability of the members of the organization to bypass all formal channels of communication and use the
plank to reach any level of authority in order to convey the information exactly as it is intended. In other
words, it the situation where anyone talks to anyone else without regard to status, position or rank.
Chester Barnard's Contribution
Chester Irving Barnard (1886­1961) was a telecommunications executive and author of Functions of the
Executive, an influential 20th century management book, in which Barnard presented a theory of
organization and the functions of executives in organizations.
Two of his theories are particularly interesting: the theory of authority and the theory of incentives. Both are
seen in the context of a communication system that should be based in some essential rules:
Chester Barnard: Believed that communication shapes the form and internal economy of an organization.
He lists 6 factors which facilitate communication:
1. Channels should be known to all
It means that whatever channels of communication exist within the organization, all members of
the organization should have an idea about them. They should be clearly communicated to the
members and the members should know how to approach the channels and use them.
2. Definite channels available to everyone
Further, channels of communication within an organization should not be restricted to some
people only, i.e. formal channels of communication should be available to everyone in order to
ensure effective communication.
3. Line should be direct and short
The communication channels should ensure that the line of communication is short and the
communication is direct between the sender and the receiver.
4. Competent persons should hold communication channels
Communication channels should be handled by competent people who have the ability to maintain
the integrity of the information and are aware of the worth of information which they are
communicating. They should be experts in the field.
5. Lines should not be interrupted during the functioning of organizations
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Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
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The line of communication should be such that any functioning of the organization should not
distort the communication or the channel itself.
6. Communication should be authenticated
Communication in the organization should be authentic and should convey information which is
true and dependable. Fake information should be ruled out. In other words, the integrity of
communication should be maintained.
According to Barnard, what makes a communication authoritative rests on the subordinate rather than in
the boss. Thus, he takes a perspective that was very unusual at that time. One might say that managers
should treat workers respectfully and competently to obtain authority.
Modern View
The modern model of communication can be understood by considering the continuum model of
communication. According to this model, there are two types of communications, both representing
continuums of communication options.
Informal-Formal
Communication within an organization is often described as formal or informal. Formal communication
refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication
required to do one's job. For example, when a manger asks an employee to complete a task, he or she is
communicating formally. So is the employee who brings a problem to the attention of his or her manager.
Any communication that takes place within prescribed organizational work arrangements would be
classified as formal.
Informal communication is organizational communication that is not defined by organization's structural
hierarchy. When employees talk with each other in the lunch room, as they bass in hallways, or as they are
working out at the company exercise facility, that is informal communication. Employees form friendships
and communicate with each other. The informal communication systems fulfill two purposes in
organizations:
·  It permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction, and
·  it can improve an organization's performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and
more efficient, channels of communication.
Humanistic-Mechanistic
Humanistic and Mechanistic model of communication represents another continuum of communication.
Communication in organization may be humanistic when it is done by the members of the organization, i.e.
verbal communication during meetings, informal verbal communication, formal verbal communication etc.
On the other hand, communication may be called mechanistic when is done through machines such as the
computer or fax machine. Emailing, voice recording, messaging, etc. are examples of mechanistic
communication.
Communication Technology
Technology, and more specifically information technology, has radically changed the way organizational
members communicate. For example, it has significantly improved a manager's ability to monitor individual
or team performance, it has allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster
decisions, and it has provided employees with more opportunities to collaborate and shore information.
Management Information System (Mis)
It may also be understood as exchange of information done by computers. Management Information
Systems (MIS) is a general name for the academic discipline covering the application of people,
technologies, and procedures -- collectively called the information system -- to solve business problems.
MIS are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information
systems applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to
refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human
decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems. MIS
has greatly improved organizational communication.
Telecommunication Technology (TT)
Telecommunication may be defined as communication over a distance by circuits using cable, fiber optics,
satellites, radio etc. In the context of organizational communication, telecommunication technology is the
use of telecommunication for exchange of information. In other words it is the exchange of information
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through telephone, television and Email. Organizational members may make use of this technology to
quickly and efficiently communicate.
Non-Verbal Communication
Also called silent language, paralanguage, facial expression, space utilization (characteristics of
environment), Body language, (voices quality, oh, oh, um, laugh, etc.). Nonverbal communication includes
all the elements associated with human communication that are not expressed orally or in writing.
Sometimes it conveys more meaning that words. Human elements include facial expressions and physical
movements, both conscious and unconscious. Physical movements and "body language" are also highly
expressive human elements. Body language includes both actual movement and body positions during
communication. The handshake is a common form of body language. Other examples include making eye
contact, which expresses a willingness to communicate; sitting of the edge of a chair, which may indicate
nervousness or anxiety; and sitting back with arms folded, which may convey an unwillingness to continue
the discussion. Environmental elements such as buildings, office space, and furniture can also convey
messages. A spacious office, expensive draperies, plush carpeting and elegant furniture can combine to
remind employees or visitors that they are in the office of the president and the CEO of the firm. The
physical setting can also be instrumental in the development of communication networks, because a
centrally located person can more easily control the flow of task related information.
How to improve non-verbal communication (3)
Three key points can be defined to improve non-verbal communication:
Look at the whole situation
When the non-verbal behavior of a person is an emotional response, it is reflection of what is going on
within his or her mind or what sort of a situation he or she is in. It can therefore be use to better
understand the person's non-verbal behavior.
Note Discrepancy between Verbal and Non-Verbal Language
Often non-verbal signals show that the verbal communication is not accurate or the information provider is
either hiding something or lying.
Note Subtleties
It is important to note the subtleties or hidden motives. A genuine or fake smile by be discovered to
improve non-verbal communication.
Cultural differences play an important part in body language. Different gestures and moves or different
non-verbal communications may be interpreted differently across cultures.
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal Communication is the communication between two people in an organization. Before
communication can take place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed, must exist. It passes
between a source (the sender) and a receiver. The message is converted to symbolic form (called encoding)
and passed by way of some medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates the sender's message (called
decoding). The result is transfer of meaning from one person to another. This is the process of
interpersonal communication.
Effective and Ineffective Interpersonal Communication
Following are some of the characteristics of effective interpersonal communication:
·
Intended to help the employee rather than discourage him or her
·
Specific to the situation or the need of the employee
·
Useful for correcting the situation or suitable to the situation.
Following are some of the characteristics of ineffective interpersonal communication:
·
Intend to belittle employee.
·
General.
·
Untimely.
Effective feedback
Following are the suggestions that can help managers be more effective in providing feedback:
·
Intention of sender
Effective feedback is when feedback is to improve the employee's performance not a personal attack on the
employee.
·
Focus on specific behavior
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Organizational Psychology­ (PSY510)
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Effective feedback intends to focus on specific behavior of the employees that need to be addressed and is
not general.
·
Descriptive
Effective feedback tells the employee what he or she has done in objective terms rather than presenting a
value judgment.
·
Useful
Effective feedback helps the employee to improve performance and is useful for him or her and the
organization as well.
·
Timely
Effective feedback is given at the right time.
·
Employee must be ready to receive it
In order for the feedback to be effective, employees must be willing to receive it.
·
Clear
Feedback should be unambiguous.
·
Valid
Feedback to be effective needs to be valid and correct, and free from biases.
Other Variable Effecting Interpersonal Communication
Some other variables also effect interposal communication, such as: Trust; expectations; values; status;
compatibility. If the employees do not trust the boss or his judgment, the communication is likely to be
ineffective. All other variables mentioned above also effect interpersonal communication.
REFERENCES
·
Mejia, Gomez. Balkin, David & Cardy, Rober. (2006). Managing Human Resources (Fourth Edition).
India: Dorling Kidersley Pvt. Ltd., licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.
·
Luthans, Fred. (2005). Organizational Behaviour (Tenth Edition). United States: McGraw Hill Irwin.
·
Robbins, P., Stephen. (1996). Organizational Behaviour (Seventh Edition). India: Prentice Hall, Delhi.
·
Huczynski, Andrzej & Buchanan, David. (1991). Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text
(Second Edition). Prentice Hall. New York.
·
Moorhead, Gregory & Griffin, Ricky. (2001). Organizational Behaviour (First Edition). A.I.T.B.S.
Publishers & Distributors. Delhi.
·
Management Information Systems. Retrieved from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_Information_Systems
FURTHER READING
·
About Chestar Barnard. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Barnard
·
Organisations@Onepine: www.onepine.info/pbarnard.htm
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHLOGY:Hawthorne Effect
  2. METHODOLOGIES OF DATA COLLECTION:Observational method, Stability of Measures
  3. GLOBALIZATION:Aspects of Globalization, Industrial Globalization
  4. DEFINING THE CULTURE:Key Components of Culture, Individualism
  5. WHAT IS DIVERSITY?:Recruitment and Retention, Organizational approaches
  6. ETHICS:Sexual Harassment, Pay and Promotion Discrimination, Employee Privacy
  7. NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS:Flat Organization, Neoclassical Organization Theory
  8. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Academy Culture, Baseball Team Culture, Fortress Culture
  9. CHANGING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:Move decisively, defuse resistance
  10. REWARD SYSTEMS: PAY, Methods of Pay, Individual incentive plan, New Pay Techniques
  11. REWARD SYSTEMS: RECOGNITION AND BENEFITS, Efficiency Wage Theory
  12. PERCEPTION:How They Work Together, Gestalt Laws of Grouping, Closure
  13. PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE:Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Stereotyping
  14. ATTRIBUTION:Locus of Control, Fundamental Attribution Error
  15. IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT:Impression Construction, Self-focused IM
  16. PERSONALITY:Classifying Personality Theories, Humanistic/Existential
  17. PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT:Standardized, Basic Categories of Measures
  18. ATTITUDE:Emotional, Informational, Behavioural,Positive and Negative Affectivity
  19. JOB SATISFACTION:The work, Pay, Measurement of Job Satisfaction
  20. MOTIVATION:Extrinsic motive, Theories of work motivation, Safety needs
  21. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:Instrumentality, Stacy Adams’S Equity theory
  22. MOTIVATION ACROSS CULTURES:Meaning of Work, Role of Religion
  23. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:Criticisms of ‘Traditional’ Psychology, Optimism
  24. HOPE:Personality, Our goals, Satisfaction with important domains, Negative affect
  25. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:EI IS Related To Emotions and Intelligence
  26. SELF EFFICACY:Motivation, Perseverance, Thoughts, Sources of Self-Efficacy
  27. COMMUNICATION:Historical Background, Informal-Formal, Interpersonal Communication
  28. COMMUNICATION (Part II):Downward Communication, Stereotyping Problems
  29. DECISION MAKING:History, Personal Rationality, Social Model, Conceptual
  30. PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES:Expertise, Thinking skills
  31. JOB STRESS:Distress and Eustress, Burnout, General Adaptation Syndrome
  32. INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS:Role Ambiguity/ Role Conflict, Personal Control
  33. EFFECTS OF STRESS:Physical Effects, Behavioural Effects, Individual Strategies
  34. POWER AND POLITICS:Coercive Power, Legitimate Power, Referent Power
  35. POLITICS:Sources of Politics in Organizations, Final Word about Power
  36. GROUPS AND TEAMS:Why Groups Are Formed, Forming, Storming
  37. DYSFUNCTIONS OF GROUPS:Norm Violation, Group Think, Risky Shift
  38. JOB DESIGN:Job Rotation, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, Skill Variety
  39. JOB DESIGN:Engagement, Disengagement, Social Information Processing, Motivation
  40. LEARNING:Motor Learning, Verbal Learning, Behaviouristic Theories, Acquisition
  41. OBMOD:Applications of OBMOD, Correcting Group Dysfunctions
  42. LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Managers versus Leaders, Defining Leadership
  43. MODERN THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP PROCESS:Transformational Leaders
  44. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Globalization and Leadership
  45. GREAT LEADERS: STYLES, ACTIVITIES AND SKILLS:Planning, Staffing