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BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES:Respondent Learning, Social Learning Theory

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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632
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LESSON 35
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES
Overview of Behavioral Approaches
·  Behavioral refers to a wide range of ideas, practices, and theories. On one end are radical
behaviorists, focusing predominantly on learning principles and avoiding any mentalist concepts,
such as thoughts. On the other end are cognitive behavior theorists, like Meichenbaum, who
emphasized mental processes in behavior. He maintained that people who act abnormally either
failed to learn the skills they need to cope with the problems of everyday living.
·  Behavioral approaches are designed to change unwanted or maladaptive behavior through the
application of basic learning principals. Behavioral approaches maintain that both abnormal and
normal behaviors are learned. Good behavior is maintained by reinforcement and unwanted
behavior can be eliminated by punishment. Behavior treatment approaches are based on these
principles.
·  Cognitive behavioral approaches maintain that behavior and perception play a reciprocal role in the
process of change.
·  Cognitive behavioral approaches form a bridge between counselors who exclusively focus on either
cognitive or behavioral changes.
Brief Background
·  Case of Albert (Watson & Raynor, 1920): In its infancy, behaviorism was advocated by Dr
J.B.Watson who advocated the use of observation for scientific study of human life. It was
followed by the experiments that human emotions can be conditioned and generalized. The case of
young Albert and laboratory rat was used to demonstrate that phobias are developed by
associations. That may serve as the basis for the development of neurosis.
·  Case of Peter (Mary Cover Jones, 1924): Mary Jones maintained that the same principles can be
employed to unlearn fears, and counterconditioning is possible to overcome phobias. This
unlearning of fear by counterconditioning was demonstrated on Peter, a 3- year old.
·  The idea of reciprocal inhibition was presented by Joseph Wolpe (1958) that if people are relaxed
then this relaxation can be used to inhibit anxiety. Wolpe presented the concept of systematic
desensitization.
·  Became prominent during 1940s and 50s. In 1950s behavioral approach was used for resolving
client's problems and was developed as a systematic psychological endeavor. Various researchers,
like skinner, Bandura, etc. played a dominant role in its development.
·  It was recognized as an alternative treatment approach in the 1960's.
·  Results of animal experiments were used to employ the same experiments with humans for
reducing anxiety in South Africa (Wolpe & Lazarus) and in Maudsley Hospital, London (Eysenck).
·  John Krumboltz (1966) is credited with popularizing behaviorism in counseling. Krumboltz drew
upon Bandura's earlier work and in doing so revolutionalized the counseling profession. In general,
behaviorists believe that learning and development occur in one of three ways:
By the 1980s, behavioral approaches had generally split into three main categories:
·  Classical/ respondent learning
·  Operant conditioning
·  Social modeling
Cognitive-behavioral approaches also emerged in the 1980s
Suitable Clients for cognitive behavior approaches
According to Kormier and Hackney (1993), the suitable clients for cognitive behavioral approaches are:
·  Predominantly goal-oriented with a need for achievement and results
·  Action-oriented with a need to do something
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Theory and Practice of Counseling - PSY632
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Interested in changing either a discrete response or a limited number of behaviors
Respondent Learning
·  Pavlov's classical conditioning is the best example of respondent learning, which occurs due to
association between two stimuli.
·  "Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition" by Joseph Wolpe in 1958 introduced systematic desensitization.
A new response, opposite to feared object, is attached with the feared stimulus.
·  In respondent learning, a person does not have to be an active participant and learning occurs due
to an association between two stimuli. This refers to conditioning of involuntary responses. This
idea is consistent with the original concept of behaviorism -application of S-R psychology. Several
other important behaviorists worked further to propagate these ideas, e.g., Guthrie, Hull,
Moreover, Miller, etc. Phobias, aversion are created in this way. Same principles of association are
applied for unlearning and learning fears.
Figure 1, given below, illustrates Pavlov's famous conditioning experiments on dogs:
Operant conditioning
·  Based on the assumption that voluntary behaviors are influenced by consequences.
·  Skinner (1953) criticized psychoanalysis as involving "explanatory fictions" and treating behaviors
as symptoms instead of behaviors.
·  He suggested for a need of applied behavior analysis, soon after Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis started in 1968.
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Operant conditioning is consistent with radical behaviorism that with the exception of genetic
influence, behavior is controlled by environmental events. This viewpoint maintained that thoughts
do not have a causal effect on behavior. However, contrary to classical conditioning, it emphasizes
the individual, and conditioning is of voluntary responses.
·  The basic idea is to reinforce the desired behaviors and withhold reinforcement for, or punish,
undesired behaviors.
·  By using operant conditioning principles of reward and punishment, retarded children are taught to
care for selves. Similarly schizophrenics have been helped to behave more rationally.
·  The significance of rewards/reinforcers varies for different people and different ages. The
following may serve as reinforcers:
·  Attention and praise
·  Token economy (people can exchange tokens for rewards)
·  Food items
·  Money
In normal life, people will repeat behavior that brings recognition, fame, praise, or meets physical needs.
Social Learning Theory
·  This approach which maintains that people acquire new knowledge by observing others is based on
classical, operant and cognitive principles.
·  Modeling involves learning by watching and imitating the behaviors of others.
·  Emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and deemphasizes the importance of external
reinforcers.
·  This approach maintains that some responses are determined by paired experiences, others are
influenced by environmental consequences, whereas cognitive mediation guides the acquisition and
regulation of behavior. Hence it is possible that even without engaging in that behavior, it can still
be learned.
·  Bandura (1977) indicates in Principles of Behavior Modification that people are more likely to learn from
and imitate the similar models. Moreover, behaviors from symbolic models (as shown in films,
commercials, books, etc.) are also learned.
Distinguishing Features
·
Interchangeable terms or synonyms are observational learning, vicarious learning, and imitation.
·
Incorporates principles from classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive behavior.
·
The major advantage of social and observational learning is that behaviors are learned in less time
and thus one is able to save time, energy and efforts.
·
The approach maintains that learning is neither only driven by internal forces, nor is just passively
reacting to the world. In fact, both the agent and object influence the environment and learning can
occur in the absence of reinforcers.
·
It has practical implications, for example, dysfunctional behavior is also learned through modeling;
children learn about aggression watching aggressive models.
For observational learning to take place, one:
·  must attend to the model
·  must retain the information
·  must perform the modeled behavior
View of Human Nature
Despite the great diversity of thought among behaviorists, certain characteristics can be identified as basic
to the overall approach.
These common characteristics are basic to overall behavioral approach (Rimm & Cunningham, 1985):
·  Concentrate on behavioral processes
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Emphasis is on "here and now" rather than "then and there"
·
All behavior is learned
·
Learning can be effective in changing maladaptive behavior
·
Focus on setting-up well-defined counseling goals
·
Importance of obtaining empirical evidence & scientific support
Role of the Counselor
·  The client learns, relearn, unlearn, and in this procedure counselor has to act as a teacher. May even
instruct or supervise support people. Counselor functions as a consultant, teacher, adviser,
reinforcer, and facilitator.
·  Social learning counselor serves as a model, while counselor with operant and respondent learning
approach acts like a teacher.
·  Rarely will use paper and pencil tests, most employ client assessment devices measuring behavior
and action. Often describe their clients according to DSM-IV for categorizing people according to
the behaviors they display many of which are listed in DSM-IV.
Goals
The goals of behavioral approaches are similar to other approaches - making people more adjusted by
eliminating maladaptive behavior. The following are main goals of behavioral approaches:
·  To modify or eliminate the maladaptive behaviors
·  To help them acquire healthy, constructive ways of acting
·  To replace unproductive actions with productive ways of responding
Steps in Achieving Goal
Blackham and Siberman (1971) suggested the following steps in the achievement of goals given above.
·  Define a problem
·  Take a developmental history
·  Establish specific goals
·  Determine the best methods for change
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Table of Contents:
  1. INTRODUCTION:Counseling Journals, Definitions of Counseling
  2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND COUNSELING & PSYCHOTHERAPY
  3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1900-1909:Frank Parson, Psychopathic Hospitals
  4. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:Recent Trends in Counseling
  5. GOALS & ACTIVITIES GOALS OF COUNSELING:Facilitating Behavior Change
  6. ETHICAL & LEGAL ISSUES IN COUNSELING:Development of Codes
  7. ETHICAL & LEGAL ISSUES IN COUNSELING:Keeping Relationships Professional
  8. EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR:Personal Characteristics Model
  9. EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR:Humanism, People Orientation, Intellectual Curiosity
  10. EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR:Cultural Bias in Theory and Practice, Stress and Burnout
  11. COUNSELING SKILLS:Microskills, Body Language & Movement, Paralinguistics
  12. COUNSELING SKILLS COUNSELOR’S NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:Use of Space
  13. COUNSELING SKILLS HINTS TO MAINTAIN CONGRUENCE:
  14. LISTENING & UNDERSTANDING SKILLS:Barriers to an Accepting Attitude
  15. LISTENING & UNDERSTANDING SKILLS:Suggestive Questions,
  16. LISTENING & UNDERSTANDING SKILLS:Tips for Paraphrasing, Summarizing Skills
  17. INFLUENCING SKILLS:Basic Listening Sequence (BLS), Interpretation/ Reframing
  18. FOCUSING & CHALLENGING SKILLS:Focused and Selective Attention, Family focus
  19. COUNSELING PROCESS:Link to the Previous Lecture
  20. COUNSELING PROCESS:The Initial Session, Counselor-initiated, Advice Giving
  21. COUNSELING PROCESS:Transference & Counter-transference
  22. THEORY IN THE PRACTICE OF COUNSELING:Timing of Termination
  23. PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACHES TO COUNSELING:View of Human Nature
  24. CLASSICAL PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH:Psychic Determination, Anxiety
  25. NEO-FREUDIANS:Strengths, Weaknesses, NEO-FREUDIANS, Family Constellation
  26. NEO-FREUDIANS:Task setting, Composition of Personality, The Shadow
  27. NEO-FREUDIANS:Ten Neurotic Needs, Modes of Experiencing
  28. CLIENT-CENTERED APPROACH:Background of his approach, Techniques
  29. GESTALT THERAPY:Fritz Perls, Causes of Human Difficulties
  30. GESTALT THERAPY:Role of the Counselor, Assessment
  31. EXISTENTIAL THERAPY:Rollo May, Role of Counselor, Logotherapy
  32. COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO COUNSELING:Stress-Inoculation Therapy
  33. COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO COUNSELING:Role of the Counselor
  34. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:Eric Berne, The child ego state, Transactional Analysis
  35. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES:Respondent Learning, Social Learning Theory
  36. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES:Use of reinforcers, Maintenance, Extinction
  37. REALITY THERAPY:Role of the Counselor, Strengths, Limitations
  38. GROUPS IN COUNSELING:Major benefits, Traditional & Historical Groups
  39. GROUPS IN COUNSELING:Humanistic Groups, Gestalt Groups
  40. MARRIAGE & FAMILY COUNSELING:Systems Theory, Postwar changes
  41. MARRIAGE & FAMILY COUNSELING:Concepts Related to Circular Causality
  42. CAREER COUNSELING:Situational Approaches, Decision Theory
  43. COMMUNITY COUNSELING & CONSULTING:Community Counseling
  44. DIAGNOSIS & ASSESSMENT:Assessment Techniques, Observation
  45. FINAL OVERVIEW:Ethical issues, Influencing skills, Counseling Approaches