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BEHAVIORAL AND SITUATIONAL MODELS OF LEADERSHIP

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Principles of Management ­ MGT503
VU
Lesson 13.38
BEHAVIORAL AND SITUATIONAL MODELS OF LEADERSHIP
Identifying Leader Behaviors
A number of researchers have focused on the question of whether specific behaviors, rather than traits,
make some leaders more effective than others.
1.
If behavior studies turned up critical behavioral determinants of leadership, people could be trained
to be leaders.
2.
Four main leader behavior studies are carried out.
a.
University of Iowa Studies--Kurt Lewin and associates--studied three leadership styles: autocratic,
democratic, and laissez-faire.
b.
The Ohio State Studies identified two important dimensions of leader behavior--initiating
structure and consideration.
c.
University of Michigan Studies identified two dimensions of leader behavior--employee oriented
and production oriented.
d.
The Managerial Grid is a two-dimensional grid for appraising leadership styles using "concern for
people" and "concern for production" as dimensions.
3.
Predicting leadership success involved more than isolating a few leader traits or behavior. This
"failure" to attain consistent results led to a focus on situational influences.
University of Iowa researcher, Kurt Lewin, conducted some of the earliest attempts to identify effective
leadership behaviors.
1.
Three types of leadership behavior styles were identified.
a.
Autocratic leaders tend to make unilateral decisions, dictate work
methods, limit worker knowledge about goals to just the next step to be
performed, and sometimes give feedback that is punitive.
b.
Democratic leaders tend to involve the group in decision making, let the
group determine work methods, make overall goals known, and use
feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching.
c.
Laissez-faire leaders generally give the group complete freedom, provide
necessary materials, participate only to answer questions, and avoid giving
feedback.
2.
Research on the comparative effectiveness of the three leadership styles was
inconclusive.
a.
The laissez-fair style was ineffective.
b.
The effectiveness of the autocratic and democratic leaders varied,
although satisfaction levels tended to be higher in the democratically led
groups.
Michigan Studies
The Michigan studies compared leadership within groups already identified as effective or as ineffective.
1.
A continuum was developed from employee-centered to job-centered approaches.
2.
With the employee-centered approach, managers channel their main attention to
the human aspects of subordinates' problems and to the development of an
effective work group dedicated to high performance goals.
3.
With the job-centered approach (or production-centered approach), leaders
divide the work into routine tasks, determine work methods, and closely supervise
workers to ensure that the methods are followed and productivity standards are
met.
4.
The outcomes of the study were mixed, but they sometimes showed that the high-
producing work units tended to have job-centered supervisors.
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Principles of Management ­ MGT503
VU
Ohio State Studies
Researchers at the Ohio State University developed a questionnaire to measure leaders' behaviors and to
correlate them with group performance and satisfaction.
1.
Two behaviors were identified as particularly important.
a.
Initiating structure is the degree to which a leader defines his or her own role and the roles of
subordinates in terms of achieving unit goals.
b.
Consideration is the degree to which a leader builds mutual trust with subordinates, respects their
ideas, and shows concern for their feelings.
2.
In contrast to the Iowa and Michigan studies, the two behaviors were considered
to be independent variables and are best illustrated with separate continuums
rather than the single continuum developed in the Iowa and Michigan studies.
3.
The leader who is high in both initiating structure and consideration was thought
to be the most effective, but further research indicated that such a generalization
was too simplistic.
The Mouton-Blake Managerial Grid uses concern for people and concern for production as its two axes.
1.
Used a training device, the grid enables managers to understand their own styles.
2.
The manager high in concern for people and concern for production is the
theoretical ideal.
a.
Research into male-female stereotypes of management styles do not hold. Most studies indicate
that male and female leaders are similar in the amounts of interpersonal and task behaviors exhibited.
Situational Theories
A.
Lack of success in identifying an effective leadership style generalize-able to all situations
led to consideration of situational factors--i.e., any particular style of leadership could be
effective depending on the situation.
1.
Situational theories are theories that emphasize situations.
2.
Contingency theories are theories of leadership because they hold that appropriate
leader traits or behaviors are contingent, or dependent, on relevant situational
characteristics.
B.
Fielder's contingency model is a situational approach originally developed by Fred
Fielder and his associates.
1.
A leader's LPC orientation is a personality trait measured by the least preferred
coworker (LPC) scale.
2.
The LPC scale is a 1 to 8 rating by the leader of "the person with whom the leader
can work least well."
3.
The interpretation of the scale has been controversial, but there is an orthodox
interpretation at present.
a.
Low-LPC leaders describe a least-preferred coworker in relatively negative
terms and are likely to be task-motivated.
b.
High-LPC leaders describe a least-preferred coworker in relatively positive
terms and are likely to be people-motivated.
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Principles of Management ­ MGT503
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4.
Fielder maintains that management style or LPC orientation is difficult to change,
so it is important to carefully match the leader's personality to situational factors
that favor the leader's prospects for success.
a.
The situation should be assessed to determine the degree of situational
control for the leader.
1)
The most important situational variable is leader-member
relations, i.e., the extent to which the leader has the support of
group members.
2)
Task structure is the extent to which a task is clearly specified
with regard to goals, methods, and standards of performance.
3)
Position power is the amount of power that the organization
gives the leader to accomplish necessary tasks.
b.
Leadership style should be matched with situation.
1)
Low-LPC leaders do best in situations of either high favorability
or extremely low favorability.
2)
High-LPC leaders do best in situations of moderate favorability
5.
Recent analyses are tending to support Fielder's original research do suggest that
there are additional factors at work that are not accounted for in the contingency
model.
C.
The normative leadership model is a model that helps leaders assess important
situational factors that affect the extent to which they should involve subordinates in
particular decisions.
1.
Five types of management method for solving group problems are delineated.
a.
Autocratic I (AI): You solve the problem or make the decision yourself
using present information.
b.
Autocratic II (AII): You obtain necessary information from subordinates
without involving them in the decision, and make the decision yourself.
c.
Consultative I (CI): You share the problem with the relevant subordinates
individually, then you make a decision which may or may not be
influenced by subordinates.
d.
Consultative II (CII): You obtain ideas and suggestions from subordinates
in a group session, but make the decision yourself.
e.
Group II (GII): You share the problem with your subordinates as a group
and coordinate their efforts to devise a solution.
2.
A decision about which method to use is guided by the answer to eight questions.
a.
How important is the technical quality of this decision?
b.
How important is subordinate commitment to this decision?
c.
Do you have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision?
d.
Is the problem well structured?
e.
If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that
your subordinates would be committed to the decision?
f.
Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving
this problem?
g.
Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solution likely?
h.
Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high-quality
decision?
3.
The revised normative leadership model can be used in either of two variations:
when developing subordinates is more important than conserving time in decision
making or when minimizing time is more important.
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D.
The situational leadership theory, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, is on
the premise that leaders need to alter their behaviors depending on the readiness of
followers.
1.
Two leader behaviors are considered to be independent dimensions.
a.
Task behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the
duties and responsibilities of an individual or group.
b.
Relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-
way or multi-way communication
2.
The four levels of readiness defined along a continuum from low to high readiness
prescribe the appropriate leadership style.
a.
Telling is used in situations of low readiness, when followers are unable
and also unwilling or too insecure to take responsibility for a given task.
b.
Selling is used for low to moderate readiness, when followers are unable
to take responsibility, but are willing or feel confident to do so.
c.
Participating is used with moderate to high readiness, when followers are
able to take responsibility, but are unwilling or too insecure to do so.
d.
Delegating is used for high readiness, when followers are able and willing
or confident enough to take appropriate responsibility.
3.
Leaders should help increase the task-related readiness of their followers as quickly
as feasible by adjusting their own leadership styles.
4.
Studies have found the situational theory of leadership particularly effective with
newly hired employees and employees in new jobs.
5.
Recent analyses are tending to support Fielder's original research do suggest that
there are additional factors at work that are not accounted for in the contingency
model.
The path-goal theory of leadership attempts to explain how leader behavior impacts the motivation and
job satisfaction of subordinates.
1.
The theory gets its name from the fact that it focuses on how leaders influence the
way that subordinates perceive work goals and possible paths to reaching both
work goals (performance) and personal goals (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards).
2.
Path-goal theory relies heavily on the expectancy theory of motivation.
3.
Four major leader behaviors can be used to affect subordinate perceptions of
paths and goals.
a.
Directive leader behavior involves letting subordinates know what is
expected of them, providing guidance about work methods, developing
work schedules, identifying work evaluation standards, and indicating the
basis for outcomes or rewards.
b.
Supportive leader behavior entails showing concern for the status, well-
being, and needs of subordinates; doing small things to make the work
more pleasant; and being friendly and approachable.
c.
Participative leader behavior is characterized by consulting with
subordinates, encouraging their suggestions, and carefully considering
their ideas when making decisions.
d.
Achievement-oriented leader behavior involves setting challenging
goals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level, and
conveying a high degree of confidence in subordinates.
Situational factors must be taken into account when choosing a leader behavior.
1. Subordinate characteristics include personality traits, skills, abilities, and needs.
2. Context characteristics include the task itself, the work group, and the organization's formal authority
system.
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Principles of Management ­ MGT503
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Diagnosis in terms of expectancy theory leads to a choice of appropriate leader behavior and involves three
steps.
1.
Think in terms of the elements used in expectancy theory to diagnose various situational factors in
terms of their effects on the three expectancy-theory elements (the path).
a.
Effort-performance is the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level.
b.
Performance-outcome expectancy is the probability that our successful performance will lead to
certain outcomes or rewards.
c.
Valence is the anticipated value of the outcomes or rewards.
1)
Diagnose situational factors that can be changed to enhance the expectancy theory elements are
targeted.
2)
Appropriate leader behaviors are initiated to change the situational factors.
Path-goal theory encompasses multiple leader behaviors and a potentially large number of situational
variables. Its flexibility provides a useful framework about likely impacts of leader behavior on subordinate
motivation, goal attainment, and job satisfaction.
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Table of Contents:
  1. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT:The Egyptian Pyramid, Great China Wall
  2. MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERS:Why Study Management?
  3. MANAGERIAL ROLES IN ORGANIZATIONS:Informational roles, Decisional roles
  4. MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS I.E. POLCA:Management Process, Mistakes Managers Make
  5. MANAGERIAL LEVELS AND SKILLS:Middle-level managers, Top managers
  6. MANAGEMENT IDEAS: YESTERDAY AND TODAY, Anthropology, Economics
  7. CLASSICAL VIEW OF MANAGEMENT:Scientific management
  8. ADMINISTRATIVE VIEW OF MANAGEMENT:Division of work, Authority
  9. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT:The Hawthorne Studies
  10. QUANTITATIVE, CONTEMPORARY AND EMERGING VIEWS OF MANAGEMENT
  11. SYSTEM’S VIEW OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION:Managing Systems
  12. ANALYZING ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
  13. 21ST CENTURY MANAGEMENT TRENDS:Organizational social Responsibility
  14. UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT WTO AND SAARC
  15. DECISION MAKING AND DECISION TAKING
  16. RATIONAL DECISION MAKING:Models of Decision Making
  17. NATURE AND TYPES OF MANAGERIAL DECISIONS:Decision-Making Styles
  18. NON RATIONAL DECISION MAKING:Group Decision making
  19. GROUP DECISION MAKING AND CREATIVITY:Delphi Method, Scenario Analysis
  20. PLANNING AND DECISION AIDS-I:Methods of Forecasting, Benchmarking
  21. PLANNING AND DECISION AIDS-II:Budgeting, Scheduling, Project Management
  22. PLANNING: FUNCTIONS & BENEFITS:HOW DO MANAGERS PLAN?
  23. PLANNING PROCESS AND GOAL LEVELS:Types of Plans
  24. MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO):Developing Plans
  25. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT -1:THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
  26. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - 2:THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT PROCESS
  27. LEVELS OF STRATEGIES, PORTER’S MODEL AND STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT (BCG) AND IMPLEMENTATION
  28. ENTREPRENEURSHIP MANAGEMENT:Why Is Entrepreneurship Important?
  29. ORGANIZING
  30. JOB DESIGN/SPECIALIZATION AND DEPARTMENTALIZATION
  31. SPAN OF COMMAND, CENTRALIZATION VS DE-CENTRALIZATION AND LINE VS STAFF AUTHORITY
  32. ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN AND ORGANIC VS MECHANISTIC VS VIRTUAL STRUCTURES
  33. LEADING AND LEADERSHIP MOTIVATING SELF AND OTHERS
  34. MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY AND ITS ANALYSIS
  35. OTHER NEED AND COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
  36. EXPECTANCY, GOAL SETTING AND RE-ENFORCEMENT THEORIES
  37. MOTIVATING KNOWLEDGE PROFESSIONALS LEADERSHIP TRAIT THEORIES
  38. BEHAVIORAL AND SITUATIONAL MODELS OF LEADERSHIP
  39. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP MODELS
  40. UNDERSTANDING GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS
  41. GROUP CONCEPTS, STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT AND TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
  42. UNDERSTANDING MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION
  43. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND CHANNELS EFFECT OF ICT ON MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION
  44. CONTROLLING AS A MANAGEMENT FUNCTION:The control process
  45. CONTROLLING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE THROUGH PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY